lecture 4: Communication

Question 1

Define communication

Answer 1

When one animal responds to the signals sent out by another animal.

Question 2

Define Signals

Answer 2

Conspicuous behaviour patterns which are often remarkably striking and also often are combined with body structures. For example plumes, crests and claws.

Question 3

What could Animal flashing colours mean?

Answer 3

Animal flashing colours, could mean mating season. Colours to attract females.

Question 4

Acts of communication tend to?

Answer 4

They can be fixed in form, which act as releasers for other actions. Also it is shown to develop very similarly in all members of a species.

Question 5

What is a signal?

Answer 5

A message sent

Question 6

What is a sender?

Answer 6

Who sent the signal

Question 7

What is a receiver?

Answer 7

Receiver - Individual who receives the signal, producing a probability of behaving in an altered way because of the signal.

Question 8

What is a channel?

Answer 8

Channel - How the signal is transmitted. E.g. visual or chemical.

Question 9

What is the context?

Answer 9

the setting in which the signal is transmitted and received.

Question 10

What is Noise?

Answer 10

Any background activity in the channel that is irrelevant to the signal while being transmitted.

Question 11

What is Code?

Answer 11

The entire range of possible signals.

Question 12

Explain signals within species?

Answer 12

Distinct signals for a species is not often in large numbers

It can sometimes mean that the same signal means different things to different recipients.

A wealth of information can be conveyed from one to another.

Question 13

How is the form of signals determined?

Answer 13

The message is decided by the animal which encodes in a signal it sends.

However the meaning is what the receiver makes of it.

Sight, sound and smells are mostly used by animals, as well as touch & taste at closer quarters. (Electric)

Question 14

What questions can be used to determine acts of communication?

Answer 14

What is the purpose of behaviour?

Has the signal evolved for the purpose of communication?

Question 15

What are the 3 different selection pressures which operate on the animals signals?

Answer 15

What form of signal will travel best in the environment between the signaller & receiver?

What signal will do the best to stimulate the senses and the brain of the receiver?

how far do the interests of the sender & receiver coincide?

Question 16

What are the three different channels of communication?

Answer 16

Visual

Auditory

Sense (Olfactory)

Question 17

For a brightly coloured animal, why must there be a greater benefit?

Answer 17

During the communication between members of the same species, the risk comes when the predators cur in on this as a means of finding food.

Question 18

What signals travel best through the environment?

Answer 18

Animals who can rely on vision will stick to communicating through visual signals

For those who don’t rely on vision might rely on tactile signals or even scent.

Mammals will rely on their hearing, sight and smell while at a distance, however they could be tactile if they are sociable.

The medium that the signal has to pass through also plays a part.

Question 19

What are the uses of vision and disadvantages?

Answer 19

Vision is used to detect changes in posture and colour, but is only important for predators that hunt by day. It is best for the targeting of prey. However because of this it is bad for communication in dense environments, especially since distance transmitted is limited by the size of the signaller

Question 20

When is vision most beneficial?

Answer 20

Vision is at its best in a more private environment for short range communication, commonly between mates or rivals.

Question 21

Explain visual signals

Answer 21

The amount of light available will influence this

Wavelengths can be affected by for example Seawater which can cause it to be scattered or absorbed.

Species such as the Warblers which are bright are easily seen in darker habitats.

Visual signals can work over long distances.

Question 22

Explain Audition in the environment

Answer 22

Communication is never private

It can pass through the environment rapidly upon signaling covering long distances and even going around corners.

Effective way of advertising

Several bits of information can be quickly transmitted at once

The pattern of the sent frequency can be sent quickly with little delay.

Question 23

Explain sound in the environment

Answer 23

Light will cause the sound to decay as it passes through it: High frequencies will lose their intensity, however low frequencies don’t and can travel more effectively over long distance.

Sound can travel better through water, fish and whales can produce amazing range with their sounds.

Question 24

What upper frequency can humans not hear?

Answer 24

Ultrasound - Beyond the upper frequency of humans(i.e. above 20kHz).

Question 25

What lower frequency can humans no hear?

Answer 25

Infrasound – below the lower frequency of human hearing range(i.e. below 20Hz).

Question 26

Explain Olfaction (smells) in the environment?

Answer 26

Smells will diffuse slowly through the environment

Wind can affect the speed and direction of the smell

Little information can be carried but can only be resent once the original sent dissipates.

Long distance detection

The signal will stay even after the animal has moved and will stay persistent.

Animals will have different scent glands of which have different purposes.

Can be used as a territorial marker

Plenty of information can be detected in such signals, for example, who the individual is, its reproductive state as well as how long ago the animal was there.

Question 27

Explain scent in the environment

Answer 27

For insects and mammals, chemical signals are very well developed

Some scents are designed to last only a short time but also persist while the signaller is absent. While others are relayed over time, in intervals.

Scenting is boundary specific.

Could develop a compromise between persistence & good dispersal.

Question 28

Give an example of costs for communication

Answer 28

Increased risk of predation

Question 29

What minimises the risk of predation during communication?

Answer 29

The intense selection pressure

An example of a method for this is the European songbird, they will emit the same seep alarm call once a hawk is spotted.

All of the same species will have an almost identical call

Indication of the species of the caller is not needed

Characteristics can make it difficult to localise

Predators with poorer hearing might struggle to hear at the frequence of the emitted sound.

Question 30

What methods of communication can be used to be deceitful towards predators?

Answer 30

A bird can drag its wing along the ground, this is done to lure the predator away from the chicks.

Moths can have large eye spots which is seen to mimic a larger animal.

Bright colours are used by insects that taste nasty in order to show their distastefulness.

Selection will most likely favour the transmission of false information.

Question 31

What ways do animals Maximize information and manipulation?

Answer 31

Accurate communication between mates is essential for potential copulation.

Signals will be produced by the animal when it is to their advantage

In order to maximise their own inclusive fitness, animals will be selfish.

Manipulation is mostly the best way to observer how animals act instead of sharing information.

Question 32

What do male toads do as competition for copulation?

Answer 32

Male toads will fight in order to take up the position of the amplexus, once a male toad reaches amplexus they will call out.

Amplexus: sitting on top of the females, waiting to fertilise the newly released eggs.

Question 33

Explain the two points of view for messages and their meaning

Answer 33

There are two points of view, first the animal of which sent the signal (message) and the receiver (meaning). However it can be different, will Vary from place to place as well as may have peculiar traits.

Question 34

What are the reasons for communicating?

Answer 34

Most animal calls used are affective

To discover the reason you need to study the particular situation of which an animal produces a signal.

The advantages involved for the signaller must be able to outweigh the disadvantages.

Question 35

Give examples of predators that vervet monkeys have calls for?

Answer 35

Snake

Leopard

Eagle

Calls have precise meaning.

Question 36

What are Advertising displays?

Answer 36

Males will normally advertise for a mate

Sexual selection has caused Lavishness to rise

Correlates with mating success and development

Expensive features

Displays aren’t always handicaps

Question 37

What is the Handicap principle?

Answer 37

“Look at me i must be an extraordinarily fit!” Amotz Zahavi

Question 38

What are Ornaments?

Answer 38

Ornaments - Status badges

For a large amount of birds dominance is what is associated with the special patterns shown on feather colouration

Dominant male house sparrow, will be given way by the sub-ordinate birds because of the status badge

Ornaments determined by testosterone

Question 39

Explain the dance of the honey bee

Answer 39

Direction is indicated by the orientation, the orientation is determined by the angle between the sun and the food source found.

The further away the food the slower the dance, however the closer the food the faster the dance.

Question 40

What is metacommunication?

Answer 40

This is a form of communication that doesn’t communicate information itself, however it will make the following signalling components eligible.

An example of this is with dogs, lowered forward part of the body shows that signals to come will be playful.

Playful aggression is a very important component for development and has evolved over time some convention.

Question 41

What stimulates the sense organs and brain?

Answer 41

The receiver still needs to detect the signal

There is a selection pressure on signals

Different situation could have caused it to be evolved

The receiver may detect features from the environment

In order for the signal to be effective, it must be stimulating

A lot of signals could create an effect by being supernormal

Question 42

How far do the interests of the sender and receiver conicide?

Answer 42

Is there a conflict between the interests of the signaller
& those of the receiver?

If one fled without a fight, both would gain

Rise of cheating or resistance to being cheated could be developed.

If interests coincide, there is no scope for cheating.

Leads to selection pressures.

Question 43

How does Mimicry, deception and honesty effect communication?

Answer 43

Some receivers can be duped into responding against their own interests.

Hedge sparrow & cuckoo

Plovers lure predators away

Black & yellow hoverflies

However it can’t persist if the deception is common, keeping it uncommon will mean it will persist.

Question 44

Give example as communication as language

Answer 44

Chimps are sociable animals, using sounds gestures and facial expressions. Some may have a hidden wealth of meanings.