Lecture 3: The self in sport and exercise - self-esteem, self-confidence and self-efficacy

Question 1

what 3 things are involved in when we talk about the self?

Answer 1

• Self-esteem, self-confidence, self-efficacy

Question 2

what can Self-esteem, self-confidence, self-efficacy have an effect on and how?

Answer 2

○ Important –> can be limiting factor on ones performance

- A persons performance will not exceed their level of these constructs

Question 3

what is self-esteem?

Answer 3

“personal judgement of worthiness” (Coopersmith, 1967)

- Personal judgement of worthiness that reflects the degree to which an individual feels positive about themselves.

Question 4

difference between self-concept and self-esteem

Answer 4

• Self-concept = what we know about ourselves

- Self-esteem = what we feel about ourselves

Question 5

what is a common approach to studying self-perceptions?

Answer 5

• Common approach to studying self-perceptions is through considering a self-system that is multidimensional and hierarchical in nature

Question 6

describe how we can study self-perceptions through considering a self-system that is multidimensional and hierarchical in nature

Answer 6

○ Global self-esteem at apex
○ Made up of different
○ E.g. Fox and Corbin (1989) proposed physical self worth can be divided in various subdomains such as competence, conditioning, physical strength
○ A multidimensional hierarchical model of the self; specificity increases from the apex to the base
○ Higher order constructs are dependent on lower order constructs
○ Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton, (1976)

Question 7

describe how athletes with poor self-esteem rely and attribute events

Answer 7

• Rely on how they are doing in the present to determine how they feel about themselves
  ○ Self-worth is unstable so performance is unstable
  
  • Success doesn’t heighten self-esteem, it sustains them
  • Attribute negative events internally and are less reliant and less consistent
  • Failure has a more significant impact on future performances
    ○ Less consistent
  • Low self-esteem individuals will usually behave in a negative way:

Question 8

describe how athletes with high self-esteem rely and attribute events

Answer 8

• Future performance less affected by failure
  ○ Maintain positive self-worth regardless of performance
  ○ Perform more consistently at higher level
  
  • They accept and value themselves as worthy and worthwhile without conditions or reservations
    ○ They can cope with failure
  • High self-esteem individuals will usually behave in a positive way:

Question 9

what are the effects of high self-esteem?

Answer 9

○ Interdependence, leadership, adaptability, resilience to stress (Wylie, 1989)

Question 10

what are the effects of low self-esteem?

Answer 10

○ Anxiety, depression, phobias (Baumeister, 1993)

Question 11

what does a less defined self of self lead to?

Answer 11

Less defined sense of self –> less self knowledge –> more susceptible to external cues and events that threaten self-esteem

Question 12

research into self-esteem?

Answer 12

• SPEX researchers asserted PA should have greater impact on physical self domains compared to other domains (e.g. academic) or the higher-order domains like global self-esteem (Fox, 2000).
  
  • Supported
    ○ Meta-analysis (Spence et al., 2005) 113 research studies examining effects of exercise
    § Conclusion - exercise results in small but significant improvements in global self-esteem
    § Also suggests that increases in physical fitness are required to produce this improvement
    ○ Meta-analysis are rare. Reviews tend to include:
    § Physical activity interventions consistently improve perceptions of the physical self (Crocker et al., 2013)
    § Significant improvements have been reported following participation in activities that include running, walking, cycling, weight-training, step dance, golf (Leith, 2010)
    § Appears that many types and doses of exercise have a positive benefit on physical self-perceptions
    □ Physical activity consistently makes people feel better about themselves physically

Question 13

self-confidence

Answer 13

“a belief about our ability to be successful”

Question 14

sport confidence

Answer 14

Sport confidence: “the belief or degree of certainty individuals possess about their ability to be successful in sport” (Vealey, 1986)

Question 15

what is the factor most consistently distinguishing highly successful from less successful athletes (Jones and Hardy, 1990)

Answer 15

self-confidence

Question 16

evidence supporting self-confidence being the Factor most consistently distinguishing highly successful from less successful athletes (Jones and Hardy, 1990)

Answer 16

• Among chief factors influencing performance 1998 Winter Olympics (Gould et al., 1999)
  ○ 63 highest achievers - 90% reported high self-confidence level
  
  • Top athletes (regardless of sport) consistently display strong belief in themselves and their ability

Question 17

2 types of self-confidence

Answer 17

trait and state

Question 18

trait self-confidence

Answer 18

○ How confident you are in your abilities in general

§ Consistent/stable

Question 19

state self-confidence

Answer 19

○ How confident you feel right now

§ Temporary/unstable

Question 20

how is self-confidence multidimensional?

Answer 20

• Confidence about one’s ability to…
  ○ Execute physical skills
  ○ Use psychological skills
  ○ Use perceptual skills(e.g. decision-making)
  ○ Learn and improve skills(regarding potential and ability)
  ○ Confidence in one’s level of physical fitness & training status
  (Vealey & Knight, 2002)

Question 21

what did Hays et al., (2007) find the additional types of self-confidence were in elite athletes?

Answer 21

○ Belief in ability to achieve (winning and improved performance)
○ Belief in one’s superiority over opposition

Question 22

benefits of self-confidence

Answer 22

• Characterised by high expectancy of success
  
  • Can influence affect, behaviour and cognition (ABCs of sport psychology)
    ○ Arouses positive affect
    ○ Facilitates concentration
    ○ Affects goals
    ○ Increases effort
    ○ Affects games strategies
    ○ Affects psychological momentum
    ○ Affects performance

Question 23

optimal self-confidence

Answer 23

• Being so convinced that you can achieve your goals you will strive hard to do so
  
  • Confidence will not overcome incompetence
  • Each person has an optimal level of self-confidence
    ○ Performance problems arise with too little/too much confidence

Question 24

how does a lack of self-confidence undermine performance?

Answer 24

• Less effective thinkers
  
  • More negative attitude
  • Tendency to give up more easily
  • Avoid more challenging situations and opportunities
  • More focused on the outcome and consequences
    These lead to anxiety, distraction, indecisiveness

Question 25

how do confident athletes maximise performance?

Answer 25

• More effective thinkers
  
  • Positive attitude
  • Persistence in the face of failure
  • Welcome opportunities and challenges
  • Focus on mastery of the task
    These lead to relaxed, focused, in control of performances

Question 26

overconfidence

Answer 26

• When confidence outweighs abilities

Question 27

types of overconfidence

Answer 27

inflated confidence

false confidence

Question 28

inflated confidence

Answer 28

○ Believe they are better than they really are
§ Have inflates opinion of themselves and skills
○ Overestimate their ability
§ Underestimate opponents skills
○ Often competent
§ Don’t adequately prepare

Question 29

false confidence

Answer 29

○ Confident outside
§ Inside - fear failure and are difficult
§ Pretend to be brash, cocky and arrogant
○ Prepare hard but lack competence to be successful

Question 30

how do you deal with overconfidence?

Answer 30

• Detrimental for athletes to think all they have to do is show up for a game/competition
  ○ Take game/competition seriously
  ○ Respect opponents and don’t underestimate their ability
  Hard work. Effort, skill, determination and confidence are needed for every game/competition

Question 31

success and confidence:

Answer 31

• Athletes may lose confidence as past success becomes a form of pressure
  
  • Athletes may start to focus on weakness and remembering failures
  • Athletes whose achievements do not match levels of self-confidence may feel demoralised

Question 32

self-fulfilling prophecy

Answer 32

prediction that sets in motion a series of events that ultimately causes the original prediction to become true
§ What you expect is what you get

	○ Expectations from self
	○ Expectations of winning or losing
	○ Expectations from coaches, parent, team-mates, fans

Question 33

negative self-fulfilling

Answer 33

Negative self-fulfilling: expect failure, which leads to actual failure, which lower self-image and expectations of future failure… a vicious cycle.

Question 34

positive self-fulfilling

Answer 34

○ Positive self-fulfilling: expecting the desired outcome and performance.

Question 35

misconceptions about self-confidence

Answer 35

1. Either you have it or you don’t
   
   2. Only positive feedback can build confidence
   3. Success always builds confidence
   4. Confidence equal outspoken arrogance
   5. Mistakes inevitably destroy confidence

Question 36

how can you build self-confidence?

Answer 36

• Performance accomplishments
  
  • Retrospections
  • Acting confident
  • Thinking confidently
  • Using imagery
  • Goal-setting
  • Preparation

Question 37

what is self-efficacy?

Answer 37

• Perception of one’s ability to perform a task successfully in a specific situation.

Question 38

differences between self-confidence and self-efficacy

Answer 38

• Self-confidence = global/general
  
  • Self-efficacy = situation specific
  • Someone may be generally self-confident in sport (golf) but when it comes to playing golf (specifically putting) then may have low self-efficacy in that situation.

Question 39

importance of self-efficacy

Answer 39

• Behaviour is better predicted by beliefs about ones capabilities than by your actual capabilities
  
  • “what people think, believe, and feel affects how they behave” (Bandura, 1986)
  • “people’s level of motivation, affective states, and actions are based more on what they believe than on what is objectively true” (Bandura, 1997)
  • Determines what people do with the knowledge and skills they have
  • Explains why people’s behaviours are sometimes disjointed from their actual capabilities…
    ○ ‘Can’t give up that…’
    ○ ‘Can’t cope without that…’
    ○ ‘I could never do that…’
  • … and why people’s behaviour differs widely even when they have similar knowledge and skills

Question 40

sources of self-efficacy

Answer 40

performance accomplishments
vicarious experiences
verbal persuasion
imaginal experiences
physiological states
emotional states

Question 40

self-efficacy theory

Answer 40

• Higher self-efficacy = higher the goal, and the more persistence one shows towards reaching those goals
  
  • A person with high self-efficacy and fails = she will attribute the failure to insufficient effort and be more likely to persist
  • A person with low self-efficacy may attribute failure to low ability, and will be more likely to give up

Question 41

how can we get self-efficacy from performance accomplishments?

Answer 41

○ Strongest source of self-efficacy because it is based on out actual experiences (positive and/or negative)
○ Success raises efficacy expectations i.e., success increases beliefs about what we can do
○ Failures lower efficacy expectations i.e., failures lower beliefs about what we can do

Question 42

how can we get self-efficacy from vicarious experiences?

Answer 42

○ Observing others succeed or fail may influence efficacy beliefs; especially for those who have little or no experience
○ Social comparison information can influence efficacy beliefs - exercising in public, with groups, in pairs; motivating vs. demotivating.
○ Social comparison can be beneficial. Since we sometimes cannot measure success without a point of reference (e.g. technique, times, scores)
○ Social comparison in the promotion of exercise to specific groups (e.g., obese, older adult, beginner exerciser)

Question 43

how can we get self-efficacy from verbal persuasion?

Answer 43

○ Is thought to influence self-efficacy
○ Weaker influence than prior success and performance attainment and imitation and modelling
○ Characterised by encouragement, reinforcement, feedback
○ Its effectiveness is also reliant on how realistic feedback may be

Question 44

how can we get self-efficacy from imaginal experiences?

Answer 44

○ Generate beliefs about personal efficacy/lack of efficacy - imaging behaving effectively/ineffectively
○ Key using imagery - see oneself demonstrating mastery (Moritz et al., 1996)

Question 45

how can we get self-efficacy from physiological states?

Answer 45

○ Condition of the body = heart rate, breathing, sweating, rate of motor activity, muscle tension/relaxation, body temperature
○ Self-efficacy related to how one evaluates physiological states (such as heart rate)
§ Facilitative - self-efficacy enhance
§ Debilitative - lowered self-efficacy

Question 46

how can we get self-efficacy from emotional states?

Answer 46

○ Physiological cues important components of emotion - emotional experiences not simply product of physiological arousal
○ Emotions/moods additional source of information about self-efficacy
○ Research - positive emotional states (e.g. happiness) more likely to enhance efficacy judgements than negative states (e.g. sadness) (Maddux and Meier, 1995)

Question 47

link between self-efficacy and motivation

Answer 47

Unless people believe that their actions can produce the outcome they desire, they have little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties… (Bandura, 1986)

Question 48

how are the strengths of self-efficacy seen in everyday life?

Answer 48

○ Whether we think productively, pessimistically or optimistically
○ How well we motivate ourselves and persevere
○ Life choices; vulnerability to stress and depression