Lecture 2: Motivation Flashcards
motivation
- ‘the direction and intensity of one’s effort’ (Sage, 1977)
in what directions can we be motivated?
- Can be motivated towards or away from doing something so direction is important
how can the intensity of motivation differ?
- Can have high or low intensity motivation
what are the approaches to motivation?
person centred view (trait) and situational factors both go into participant and situation interaction. this then goes to participant motivation
person centred view
Person centred view = trait view (part of our make up and who we are - personality, needs, interests, goals)
situational factors
Situational factors = state approach (coaching style, environment win-loss ratio)
key study on motivation
Sorrentino and Sheppard (1978)
sample used for Sorrentino and Sheppard (1978) study
44 males and 33 female swimmers
method used for Sorrentino and Sheppard (1978) study
200 yard freestyle time trial
○ Individually and relay team
- Situational factor
○ Swimming alone/part of a relay team
- Personality characteristic - affiliation motivation
○ Degree to which see group involvement as opportunity for social approval
○ Social rejection
object of Sorrentino and Sheppard (1978) study
see whether each swimmer was orientated toward social approval or toward rejection and how their motivational orientation influenced their performance.
findings of Sorrentino and Sheppard study
- Trait and state interact with each other
table:
alone+approval-oriented = lower performance
on team+approval-oriented = best performance
alone+rejection-threatened = best performance
on team+rejection-threatened = lower performance
which theory would you use to answer: Does it matter if we have a choice?
Self-determination theory
who developed self determination theory?
Deci and Ryan (1985, 2000)
focus
extent to which behaviours such as sport and exercise participation undertaken voluntarily (not controlled by external agent such as a coach, or contingency such as rewards).
what does SDT stand for?
self determination theory
what is SDT a general theory of?
○ General theory on what motivates people (as opposed to how).
assumption of SDT?
○ Assumption: humans growth oriented organisms who actively seek optimal challenges and new learning experiences to master.
what is manifested within SDT and how?
○ Inherent tendency for growth is manifested within SDT through the concept of intrinsic motivation.
what does SDT propose?
Proposes we have 3 basic psychological needs
what does Deci and Ryan suggest happens when people experience the 3 basic psychological needs?
○ Proposes we have 3 basic psychological needs: Deci and Ryan suggest when people experience these 3 things, they become more self-determined and able to be intrinsically motivated to pursue that the things that interest them.
3 basic psychological needs in SDT
§ Autonomy
§ Relatedness
§ Competence
autonomy
§ Autonomy: people need to feel in control of own behaviours and goals.
relatedness
Relatedness: people need to experience a sense of belonging and attachment to other people.
competence
§ Competence: people need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills.
intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation: participation in sport that is inherently pleasurable when effort is based on enjoyment of competition, excitement, or the desire to learn and improve.
extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation: when sport involvement is driven by trophies, ribbons, salaries or scholarships, or the approval of others.
amotivation
Amotivation: relative absence (inherent lack) of motivation
what does SDT say athletes are driven by?
○ Athletes driven mainly by personal goals and achievements rather than financial incentives.
But competing against and defeating an opponent is still important for some.
what are the perceived locus’ of causality on the continuum proposed by Deci and Ryan?
intrinsic motivation integrated motivation identified regulation introjected regulation external regulation amotivation
what are the extrinsic motivation locus of causality on Deci and Ryan’s continuum?
integrated regulation
identified regulation
introjected regulation
external regulation
what are the defining features for intrinsic motivation?
for enjoyment, pleasure and fun
no discernible reinforcement or reward
what are the defining features of integrated regulation?
behaviours that are fully incorporated into the repertoire of behaviours that satisfy psychological needs
what are the defining features of identified regulation?
for personally held clues such as learning new skills; internally referenced contingency
what are the defining features of introjected regulation?
for avoiding external sources of disapproval, or gaining externally reference approval
what are the defining features of external regulation?
for external reinforcement such as gaining rewards or avoiding punishment
what are the defining features of amotivation?
lack of intentionality and personal causation
How does self-determination theory link with sport and exercise behaviour?
○ Supported endorsement of self-determined motives associated.
○ Increased effort in physical education classes and intention to be physically active (standage et al., 2003), exercise intensity (Edmunds et al., 2006), and training outcomes such as burnout in elite rugby athletes (Creswell and Eklund, 2005).
- Cognitive evaluation theory supports extrinsic rewards undermining intrinsic motivation
key theory aswering the question:
does it matter if we hold different views about what constitutes success?
achievement goal theory (Nicholls, 1989)
what question does achievement goal theory answer?
does it matter if we hold different views about what constitutes success?
what is achievement goal theory about understanding?
the role of competence or ability.
achievement goal theory
○ A theory of motivation that focuses on differences in how individuals evaluate competence and define success and failure.
what does achievement goal theory include?
dispositional factors and achievement goal orientations
dispositional factors
individual characteristics that influence behaviour and actions in a person.
what are the 2 achievement goal orientations in achievement goal theory?
task-mastery orientation and ego orientation
task-mastery orientation:
take pride in the progressive improvement of their knowledge and ability relative to their own past performances.
□ Self referenced (don’t worry about actions of others and instead focus on themselves)
□ Focus on improving ability rather than current ability less important
® Process orientation (one step at a time).
® Conductive maintaining high perceptions competence/ability.
ego orientation
intent on demonstrating superiority over others (motivated by social comparison).
□ Want to be the best - demonstrated by showing superiority over others
□ Other reference perceptions of competence.
□ Current ability is important
® Superior to others
® Equal with less effort
□ Outcome orientation
□ Not conductive maintaining perceptions high competence/ability.
characteristics of goal profile: high ego, low task
anxiety
focus on winning
characteristics of goal profile: high ego, high task
focus on winning or what it take to win
uses feedback constructively
characteristics of goal profile: low ego, low task
disinterested
low perceived ability
characteristics of goal profile: low ego, high task
low anxiety
high enjoyment
individual differences in achievement goals (achievement goal theory)
○ Goal orientations considered independent (orthogonal) - combination of high, moderated, low (Nicholls, 1984).
○ Individual differences in orientation result of socialisation of task or ego involvement in home or experiences in achievement (i.e. classroom) (Nicholls, 1989).
○ Adoption of task and ego goals for specific activity involve both individual goal orientations and situation cues.
○ Try to balance high levels of ego orientation with high levels of task orientation.
what if the environment values winning over improvement (achievement goal theory)?
○ Goal orientations are dispositional and motivational climates are situational.
○ Motivational climate (Ames, 1992).
○ Mastery (Task-involving) climate - focused on individual improvement, effort and cooperative learning.
○ Performance (ego-involving) climate - highlighted by competition, outperforming others, viewing mistakes as failures and achieving success with minimal effort.
○ What the environment promotes can have an effect on the orientation of the individual
motivational climate and target (achievement Goal theory)
○ Epstein (1989) - 6 achievement structures (TARGET)
○ Manipulating the TARGET structures to support the development of a mastery-oriented motivational climate have also been shown to significantly impact the motivational climate.
○ Manipulating these 6 things can create different types of climate
what are the 6 achievement structures (achievement goal theory)
tasks authority recognition grouping evaluation time
tasks in TARGET
challenging and divers
absence of variety and challenge
authority in TARGET
students are given choices and leadership roles
students do not take part in the decision-making processes
recognition in TARGET
private and based on individual progress
public and based on social comparison
grouping in TARGET
promotion of cooperative learning and peer interaction
groups are formed on the basis of ability
evaluation in TARGET
based on mastery of tasks and on individual improvement
based on winning or out-performing others
time in TARGET
time requirements are adjusted to personal capabilities
time allocated for learning is uniform to all students
theory answering the question:
does it matter how we attribute success or failure?
attribution theory (Weiner, 1985/86)
question that attribution theory answers
does it matter how we attribute success or failure?
attributions
specific causes used to explain outcome/behaviour
§ May not be the actual cause but perceived to be the cause.
○ Can effect expectations and emotional reactions § Influence future achievement motivation.
4 attributions in attribution theory
§ Ability
§ Effort
§ Task difficulty
§ Luck
2 dimensions of attribution theory
locus of causality
stability
locus of causality
□ Internal factors (under the control of performer) (ability/effort)
□ External factors (beyond performers control) (task difficulty/luck)
internal factors
(under the control of performer) (ability/effort)
external factors
(beyond performers control) (task difficulty/luck)
stability
□ Stable factors: fixed factors (don’t change over time) (ability/task difficulty)
□ Unstable factors: vary with time (effort/luck)
stable factors
□ Stable factors: fixed factors (don’t change over time) (ability/task difficulty)
unstable factors
□ Unstable factors: vary with time (effort/luck)
describe high achievers using Weiner’s model
§ Attribute success to internal factors
§ Failure is attributed to external factors
§ Creates approach behaviours
describe low achievers using Weiner’s model
§ Attribute success to external factors
§ Attribute failure to internal factors
§ Avoidance behaviour
what is self-serving bias?
§ Successful performers take credit for success
□ Done by attributing success to their own qualities (natural ability, ability to respond to competitive stress).
§ Enhances feeling of pride, self-worth and self-esteem
§ Also tend to blame external factors for failure
□ Done automatically to avoid internal controllable and stable factors (even if such factors may be true).
□ Self-serving bias - give attributions to protect self-esteem rather than look for true attributions which would reflect reality.
§ Unsuccessful performers - don’t always attribute failure to external factors
□ Don’t protect self-esteem and tends to reduce motivation.
what are the 3 theoretical approaches to motivation and what question do they each answer?
self-determination theory - does it matter if we have a choice?
achievement goal theory - does it matter if we hold different views about what constitutes success?
attribution theory - does it matter how we attribute success or failure?
