Lecture 3: Persuasion and Social Norms

Question 1

What is the:

Yale Model of Persuasion

(Hovland, Janis, & Kelly, 1953)

Answer 1

Who says what to whom with what effect?

Researchers were interested in propaganda by the US government in WWII. A series of films were shown to soldiers to see whether or not they actually boosted morale. What the researchers found was that it didn’t initially seem to work (from the reports of the soldiers a few days after). However, nine weeks later, they measured the soldiers’ attitudes again, and they found that the soldiers who had seen the films felt more positively about the war and fighting in the war.

This has been called the sleeper effect—when we know that we are being persuaded, we tend to disregard the information. However, after a certain amount of time, when we are no longer conscious of the bias, the effects of the message start to sink in.

Question 2

How does the argument quality affect persuasion?

Answer 2

Message characteristics include the message’s quality, vividness, length, familiarity, context, etc. High quality messages are generally more persuasive than low quality messages (duh!). High quality arguments are generally clear, logical, and tailored to the values of the audience,

Question 3

What are examples of audience characteristics?

Answer 3

Audience characteristics include the person’s age, personality, mood, as well as their motivation to process the message. Generally, young people are more persuadable and happy people are less likely to think about things deeply.

Question 4

Define:

dual process model

Answer 4

A type of theory which provides an account of how a phenomenon can occur in two different ways, or as a result of two different processes. The dual process model of persuasion is called the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM).

Question 5

What is the:

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Answer 5

This model states that persuasion can occur through two different “routes” or types of processes: the peripheral route and central route. The role of cognitive responses varies across people and situations. At certain times, when motivation and ability are high, cognitive responses will be key to determining persuasion outcomes. At other times, when motivation and/or ability are low, the use of simple cues or rules will be key.

Question 6

What is:

elaboration

Answer 6

Refers to the thoughts (the cognitive responses) that someone has in reaction to a persuasive message. When elaboration occurs, a persuasive appeal will be successful if it leads to favourable reactions, and unsuccessful if it leads unfavourable reactions.

Question 7

What motivational factors influence which route is your audience going to take (central vs. peripheral)?

Answer 7

• Is the audience motivated to think carefully about this persuasive communication?
• Do they believe environmental issues are relevant to them?
• Do they feel a sense of personal responsibility for their attitude toward the environment?
• Do they have a lot of knowledge about environmental issues?
• Do they enjoy thinking deeply about things (i.e. have a high need for cognition)?

Question 8

What kinds of individuals are more likely to take the central route?

Answer 8

Some people enjoying thinking more than others—these individuals have a high “need for cognition.” They are motivated to put more time and effort into processing persuasive messages.

• The Need for Cognition (NFC) Scale (Cacioppo & Petty, 1984) described measures for individuals with a high need for cognition.
• Examples of items include: “I find satisfaction in deliberating hard and for long hours” and “I really enjoy a task that involves coming up with new solutions to problems.”

Question 9

What are the two key factors that influence your audience’s ability to process information systematically?

Answer 9

1. Information Complexity
2. Opportunity to Concentrate (i.e. Do they have the cognitive resources to sit down and process this information?)

Question 10

How does Petty et al.’s (1981) experiment provide empirical support for the ELM?

Answer 10

• In this experiment, participants were asked about their attitudes towards comprehensive exams in colleges.
• The researchers manipulated the message quality (strong evidence with statistics vs. weak, anecdotal evidence), message source (a professor vs. a high-school student), and self-relevance (whether the policy was to be implemented at their own school vs. another school).
• Their hypothesis was that if it was not self-relevant, students would take the peripheral route. This means the expert source will be more important (expertise heuristic) and they’re going to rely on peripheral cues. Content won’t be important. If it’s self-relevant, they’re more likely to take the central route and pay attention to the argument quality (regardless of the source).

Question 11

Flowchart: How should we appeal to our audience?

Answer 11

Question 12

What are the differences in the attitudes formed via the peripheral vs. central routes?

Answer 12

Question 13

How can we encourage our audience to take the central route?

Answer 13

Find ways to increase their motivation and ability!

• Emphasize how personally relevant the issue is, as well as the personal responsibility of the person
  
  • e.g. “There are about 61 trees per person on this Earth. How will you use yours? Will any be left when you leave?”
• Make sure your message is easy to comprehend.
• Reduce any surrounding distractions.

Question 14

How do the motivational and processing principles relate to the ELM?

Answer 14

• Striving for mastery will motivate people to want to listen to authority.
• Seeking connectedness will motivate us to try and be more knowledgeable about the group.
• Valuing “me and mine” will motivate people to want to support their own biases, so either supporting something they agree with or disagreeing with something they don’t like.
• Conservatism will be reinforced through the central route.
• Accessibility will determine what peripheral cues affect us.

Question 15

What role does guilt play in persuasion?

Answer 15

Many ads use guilt in order to persuade the audience. They must be careful not to provoke too much guilt, which tends to lead to anger. The right amount of guilt can activate connectedness and self-protection motives that lead us to adopt the behavior (e.g. quit smoking) or buy the product that will reduce our guilt.

Question 16

What is the:

norm of social reciprocity

Norms & Persuasion Tactics

Answer 16

The shared view that people are obligated to return to others the goods, services, and concessions they offer to us. Some form of this norm exists in almost all societies.

• This norm has individual benefits, such as ensuring fairness (i.e. people aren’t being taken advantage of).
• It also has group benefits, such as strenthening bonds, and building trust and commitment.
• Stores and companies tend to give out “free” things because it invokes the norm of reciprocity. Most people feel weird taking something for nothing.

Question 17

What did Regan (1971) demonstrate in regards to the norm of social reciprocity with soda and raffle tickets?

Answer 17

Regan showed how the norm of social reciprocity can be activated even by unsolicited favours by people we don’t like. In this study, participants come into the lab and meet a confederate who’s behaving in an unlikable manner. There’s a break in the experiment, and the confederate goes out to buy a pop, and he brings one back for the participant. At the end of the experiment, the confederate asks the participant to buy a raffle ticket. Most participants bought many more tickets in the social norm situation than the control condition.

Question 18

What is the:

door-in-the-face technique

Norm of Social Reciprocity

Answer 18

When the influencer makes a large initial request that is refused, followed by a smaller request that looks like a concession, making it more likely that the other person will concede in turn.

This technique only activies the norm of reciprocity if three conditions exist: (1) the initial request must be large enough to be refused, but not large enough to breed resentment; (2) the target must be given the chance to compromise (i.e. must have opportunity to comply with a second request after refusing a first); and (3) the second request must be related to the first, and come from the same person who is seen as making a concession. Under these circumstances, the target may start to feel guilty and feel that they should be willing to make a concession themselves. Thus, they agree to second, smaller request in order to repair their damaged sense of self.

Question 19

What did Cialdini et al. (1975) demonstrate in regards to the norm of social reciprocity with a zoo?

Answer 19

Researchers were trying to get people to volunteer to accompany juvenile delinquents on a zoo trip. There was a 17% agreement when only request made vs. a 51% agreement when request made following a larger request (i.e. asking people to be a personal mentor for the troubled youth for 2 years). This experimented demonstrated the door-in-the-face-technique.

Question 20

What are three other sales techniques that invoke the norm of social reciprocity?

Answer 20

The “that’s not all” technique (e.g. Call now and you get two Shamwows!), and selling the top of the line (i.e. first presenting an expensive product, then showing them a cheaper product). Another technique that’s especially helpful for bake sales takes advantage of free things. (e.g. You can get a cupcake and two cookies for 75 cents or you can get a cupcake for 75 cents and two cookies for free. 40% of people found the former more appealing, while 73% found the latter more appealing. Even though you’re getting the exact same things for the same price, people sell more when they’re selling free things.

Question 21

What is the:

norm of social commitment

Norms & Persuasion Tactics

Answer 21

The shared view that people are required to honor their agreements and obligations. This norm allows individuals to trust each other and to plan for the future based on other people’s stated intentions. (This norm is even stronger in collectivist cultures and groups.)

Question 22

What did Moriarty (1975) demonstrate in regards to the norm of social commitment at the beach?

Answer 22

Experimenters were sitting on the beach with their nice radio, with people beside them. In one condition, the researchers just get up and leave. In the other condition, before they get up and leave, they tell the people beside them, “Could you watch my stuff for a second?” In all cases, after the researchers leave, somebody comes by and steals the radio. So how likely were people to take responsibility? 20% of people who weren’t committed tried to do something about the theft, versus 95% in the commitment condition.

Question 23

What is the:

low-ball technique

Norm of Social Commitment

Answer 23

When the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the cost of honoring the commitment. (e.g. Hidden airline fees—“consumer fee outrage has been mounting as airlines increasingly ‘unbundle’ charges for services that historically were included in the price of a ticket.”)

Question 24

Why are people compelled to stick to their agreements even when the terms have changed?

Norm of Social Commitment

Answer 24

While you’re going through the motions of this agreement, you’re elaborating on what’s going to happen after you follow through. For example, you went into buying a car with the idea that you’re going to get a great deal. So after the price has increased, you’ve already made all of these thoughts in your head about how happy the car will make you and how cool it is, and you’re more willing to accept the new price.

Question 25

What is the:

norm of obedience to authority

Norms & Persuasion Tactics

Answer 25

The shared view that people should obey those with legitimate authority. It is sometimes enforced (e.g. “Stop or I’ll shoot!”). But most often, is motivated by private feelings that legitimate authority should be obeyed.

Question 26

What conditions have to be in place for people to follow the orders of another (i.e. obedience)?

Norm of Obedience to Authority

Answer 26

1. Authority must be (perceived as) legitimate.
   
   • e.g. Someone in a uniform or a lab coat. It can also be more implicit, such as being tall or being male.
2. Authority must accept responsibility.
   
   • e.g. “If I shock this guy for you, you’ll take responsibility, right?
   • Some individuals will perceive themselves as more responsible for their actions than others.
3. Norm of obedience must be accessible.
   
   • If there’s a distance between the individual and authority figure (i.e. they’re not as accessible), people will be less likely to listen.
4. Incompatible norms must be suppressed.
   
   • e.g. If you’re asked to shock someone, we have to suppress the norm of social responsibility (the one that says we don’t harm one another), and the norm of authority must be the strongest.

Question 27

What is the role of cognitive dissonance in the norm of obedience?

Norm of Obedience to Authority

Answer 27

We often see a gradual escalation of obedience. For example, in the Milgram experiments, people didn’t go from 0 to 450 volts immediately. Often times, requests are more benign and as people keep listening they keep escalating in their actions. This can be explained by cognitive dissonance; as people are participating in these situations, they come up with justifications for their behaviour (e.g. deny free choice, emphasize positive implications of what they’re doing, etc.).

Question 28

What role does credibility play in authority-based ads?

Norm of Obedience to Authority

Answer 28

In general, authorities are people who have acquired status through education, experience, talents, or other means (Cialdini, 2001). For example, mothers, teachers, doctors, etc. (There’s little research done on how effective authority figures in ads are, as the main research has been focussed on credibility.) Credibility of the authority matters; an authority who is perceived as credible (trustworthy and knowledgeable) is particularly powerful.