Lecture 3: Chapter 2: Current Approaches in Psychopathology Flashcards
What are the 4 types of influences that guide the study and treatment of psychopathology?
- Genetic
- Neuroscience
- Cognitive behavioral
- Socioemotional
What is epigenetics?
The study of how the environment can alter gene expression or function
What are 2 current insights of genetic research?
- Almost all behavior is heritable to some degree
- But genes don’t operate in isolation from the environment
How many chromosomes does a human have?
46, each consisting of many genes
What are genes?
Parts of a chromosome that carry DNA (genetic info)
What is gene expression?
Proteins turning genes on and off
What does it mean that psychopathology is polygenetic?
Genetic vulnerability is caused by the influence of multiple genes turning themselves on and off as they interact with a person’s environment
What is heritability? What are 2 important characteristics?
Statistical measure that refers to the extent to which variability in behavior in a population can be attributed to genetic influences
- Range from 0-1, high number is high heritability
- It’s relevant for large population, not individuals
What are 2 types of environmental factors that are important in genetic research?
- Shared environment: things common to family members, such as parenting practices or family income
- Non-shared environment: things that are unique to individual members of the family (friends etc.)
What is behavioral genetics?
The study that explores to what extent genes and environment contribute to certain behaviors
What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?
Genotype = physical sequence of DNA, total genetic make up of someone. It’s dynamic (gene expression)
Phenotype = observable behavioral characteristics. It changes over time and is the product of genotype-environment interaction
What is molecular genetics?
The study that seeks to identify genes and their functions
The main focus is identifying sequence and structure differences in genes
What are alleles?
Different forms of the same gene
What is genetic polymorphism?
Refers to a difference in DNA sequence on a gene that has occurred in a population
What is the function of RNA?
DNA in genes are transcribed to RNA. Then RNA can be translated into amino acids, which form proteins. These proteins can serve all kinds of functions, such as making cells
What is single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPS)?
Difference between people in a single nucleotide in the DNA sequence of a particular gene
They’re the most common types of polymorphism in the human genome
It has been studied in schizophrenia, autism and mood disorders
What are copy number variations (CNVs)? What are the 2 types?
Abnormal copy of one or more sections of DNA within the gene
- Addition
- Deletion
What are genome-wide association studies (GWAS)?
Study of SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) and CNVs (copy number variations)
Computers isolate differences in genetic sequence between people who suffer from psychological disorders and people who do not
What is gene-environment interaction?
Genes can influence a person’s sensitivity to an environmental event
Genes can cause us to look for certain environments that increase the risk of developing a specific disorder
How can the genetic paradigm help us in psychopathology? What are 3 challenges that remain?
It helps us understand how genes are implicated in psychopathology
- How exactly the gene-environment interaction works
- Complex because several genes contribute to one disorder
- Most of genetic vulnerability increases rsik for psychopathology broadly more than for one specific disorder
SNPs tell us about the … of genes
CNVs tell us about the … of genes
SNPs: sequence
CNVs: structure
What are the 3 domains of neuroscientific research that are interesting for understanding influences in psychological disorders?
- Neurons and neurotransmitters
- Brain structure and function
- Neuroendocrine system
What are the 4 parts of a neuron?
- Cell body
- Dendrites
- Axons
- Terminal buttons at end of axon
What is a synapse?
Small gap between terminal endings of the sending axon and the cell membrane of the receiving neuron. This is the area neurotransmitters are sent from one to another
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemicals that allow neurons to send a signal across the synapse to another neuron
Which neurotransmitters may be involved in depression/mania/schizophrenia and which neurotransmitter in anxiety disorders?
Depression/mania/schizophrenia = dopamine and serotonin
Anxiety disorders = GABA
What are the 2 types of messages a neurotransmitter can send?
Inhibitory: makes postsynaptic cell less likely to create a new action potential
Excitatory: leads to creation of action potential in postsynaptic cell
What is meant with reuptake of neurotransmitters?
Neurotransmitters that aren’t received by post synaptic cell are either broken down in the synapse or there is reuptake from the pre-synaptic cell
What are gyri and sulci?
Gyri: ridges
Sulci: cavities
Describes structure of the brain
What is the difference between grey and white matter?
Grey: cell body material, form the outer covering of the brain
White: interior of the brain, where the large tracts of myelinated axons are
What are ventricles?
Cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid deep in the brain. The fluid circulates through the brain through these ventricles which are connected to the spinal cord
What is the limbic system? What are the 5 important structures of it?
Structures that support the expressions of emotions and primary motivations
- Anterior cingulate
- Septal area
- Hippocampus
- Hypothalamus
- Amygdala
What is pruning?
The elimination of synaptic connections when a child’s brain is developing. There will be fewer connections in the brain, but they will become faster
What are 3 types of connectivity in the brain?
- Structural connectivity
- Functional connectivity
- Effective connectivity
What is structural connectivity?
How structures are connected with white matter
What is functional connectivity?
Connectivity between brain regions based on correlations between their BOLD responses measured with fMRI
What is effective connectivity?
Combines structural and functional connectivity. It reveals correlations between BOLD responses in different regions but also the direction and timing of those activations
What are brain networks?
Clusters of brain regions that are connected in activation
What is the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA)?
Plays important role in stress
What happens in the neuro-endocrine system when there is a great threat? Explain in 3 steps
- Hypothalamus releases CRF (corticothrophin releasing factors) to the pituitary gland
- Pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) to the adrenal cortex
- Adrenal cortex in kidneys releases cortisol (stress hormone)
Which 2 disorders are linked to chronic stress?
Schizophrenia and depression
What are the 2 systems of the autonomic nervous system and what is their function?
- Sympathetic: fight/flight
- Parasympathetic: rest and digest
What is the role of cytokines?
They are proteins that are released when there’s an infection, fatigue and activation of HPA axis.
Pro-inflammatory cytokines have been implicated in depression and schizophrenia
How do antidepressants and benzodiazepines work?
Antidepressants (Prozac): inhibiting reuptake of serotonin
Benzodiazepines: stimulates GABA neurons to inhibit systems responsible for physical symptoms of anxiety
What does it mean we have to be cautious of reductionism?
The view that psychopathology and complex psychological disorders can be reduced to biological factors
The causal link between neurotransmitters and psychopathology isn’t strong
What is behaviorism?
The idea that problem behavior can continue if reinforced
What is behavioral activation (BA) therapy?
It involves helping a person engage in tasks that provide positive reinforcement
What is exposure as a behavioral treatment?
It involves facing the object or situation causing the anxiety without harm
What is time-out as a way to extinguish problem behavior?
The person is sent for a period of time to a location where positive reinforcers are not available
(in de hoek staan voor stoute kinderen)
Why is behaviorism and behavior therapy criticized?
They minimize the importance of thinking and feeling
What is cognition?
The mental processes of perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, judging and reasoning
What are schemas? What are 2 ways to adjust schemas?
People and animals structure their experiences by creating schemas, which is an organized network of accumulated knowledge
- Assimilation
- Accommodation
What is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)?
It attempts to influence thoughts, perceptions, self-statements and unconscious assumptions in order to modify overt and covert disturbed behavior
What is cognitive restructuring?
Changing pattern of thought
What therapy did Aaron Beck develop and what was his idea behind it?
Developed cognitive therapy for depression based on the idea that a depressive mood is caused by disturbances in the way people perceive life experiences
For which 3 disorders are negative cognitive tendencies a good predictor?
Depressive disorders, anxiety disorders and PTSD
What are 2 things you need to consider when linking emotional disturbances with psychopathology?
- Consider which emotion components are affected
- Ideal affect: emotional states a person ideally wants to feel
On what does ideal affect depend?
It depends on cultural factors (how someone ideally wants to feel)
What are 4 sociocultural factors that influence different psychological disorders?
- Gender: disorders have different effect on men and women
- Poverty: related to antisocial disorder and anxiety
- Cultural/ethnic factors: some mental disorders can be observed in different cultures but their conceptualization varies. Other disorders are specific to cultures (eating disorders)
- Race: schizophrenia is more prevalent among blacks compared to whites
What are examples of interpersonal factors and how are they related to disorders?
The quality of family, relationships, social support and the amount of casual social contact
They influence the course of disorders
What is interpersonal therapy (IPT)?
It encourages the patient to identify feelings about his/her relationships and to express these feelings and then help the patient generate solutions to interpersonal problems
What 4 interpersonal issues are assessed in interpersonal therapy (IPT)?
- Unresolved grief: deleayed grieving following a loss
- Role transitions: transitioning from child to parent e.g.
- Role disputes: resolve different relationship expectations
- Interpersonal/social deficits: finding it difficult to negotiate with boss at work
What is stress?
Subjective experience of distress in response to perceived environmental problems
Why can’t you establish a causal relationship in the study of the effects of environment en socioemotional influences?
You can’t experimentally study it. That is ethically not okay
What are 2 obstacles in the study of the effects of environment and socioemotional influences?
- No causal relationship possible to assess
- Many socioemotional influences are strongly related to one another (e.g. poverty and stress)
What are the 3 components of emotion?
- Expression
- Experience
- Physiology
What are the 6 schools of thought?
- Behavior/learning
- Cognitive theory
- Experiential
- Psychodynamic
- Genetics
- Neuroscience
What are the 3 levels of description, explanation and research?
- Complaints & symptoms (clinical practice)
- Processes (experimental clinical research)
- Physiology (fundamental research)
What is the diathesis stress model? Describe how it looks
Heritable predisposition + early experiences
–> influences strengths and vulnerabilities
Strength/vulnerabilities (diathesis) + stress –> influences complaints/symptoms
Complaints/symptoms have feedback loop to diathesis and stress, which then loops back to symptoms again
Give examples of heritable predispositions and early experiences in the diathesis stress model
Heritable: genotype, temperament
Early exp.: nurture, care, trauma, deprivation
Give examples of strenghts and vulnerabilities (diathesis) in the diathesis stress model
Fenotype, schemas, cognitions, attributions, attachment style, personality, neuro endocrine etc.
Give examples of support and stress in the diathesis stress model
Social environment, medication, psychotherapy, daily stress, trauma, life events etc.
What is the dodo bird effect? What risk does this way of thinking entail?
The effect that most therapies are equally effective in trials
Risk: some treatments can be harmful in some situations
What are 3 factors in Evidence Based Practice (EBP) in Psychology?
- Individual clinical expertise
- Best external evidence
- Patient values & expectations
Who was a pioneer in client-centered therapy? How does it work?
Carl Rogers: he let the client figure it out himself and helped to make sense of all that happens around the client and provide clarity. It helps a person to see one’s potential
What are 3 aspects of a therapist in client centered therapy?
- Authenticity
- Unconditional positive regard
- Empathy
What is the theory of self-actualization (Rogers)?
Understand more aspects of the self and become more integrated unique personality. Better understand and accept others and cope with the problems of life more readily
Not very well supported though
How did Albert Ellis pioneer early cognitive therapy?
Ellis challenges one’s cognition very actively by talking a lot and telling client what she has to think
This sometimes works for people who never really had support. It sometimes gives you guts to try new behavior
What is gestalt therapy according to Perls? Why can it be harmful?
It’s process oriented and focuses on experiencing the here and now.
It uses techniques such as the empty chair technique.
It’s sometimes effective and sometimes harmful. Harmful because a strong emotional event memory is formed
