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Lecture 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

taxonomy

A
  • science of classification

- robert whittaker came up with the 5 kingdom system

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2
Q

kingdom

A
  • based on cell type: prokaryotic or eukaryotic
  • cellular organization- unicellular/multicellular
  • nutritional requirements- photosynthetic/nonphotosynthetic
  • created by robert whittaker
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3
Q

5 kingdoms

A

prokaryotae- prokaryotic organisms (bacteria)

  • protista- eukaryotic, unicellular (amoeba)
  • fungi- eukaryotic- yeast and mold
  • plants- all plants- conifers, flowering plants
  • animals- all animals, insects, worms, vertebrates
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4
Q

domain

A
  • based on ribosomal RNA sequence
  • *bacteria
  • *archaea
  • *eukarya
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5
Q

bacteria domain

A
  • normal flora
  • pathogens
  • have peptidoglycan cell wall
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6
Q

archaea domain

A
  • prokaryotic
  • unusual organisms
  • extreme environment- hot springs, dead sea, salt lakes
  • cell walls are made of pseudomurein
  • ex. sulfolobus
  • 3 groups: halophiles, thermophiles, methanogens
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7
Q

eukarya domain

A
  • protista
  • fungi
  • plant
  • animal
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8
Q

archaea domain: halophiles

-

A
  • need high concentration of salt
  • at least 30%
  • ex. halobacterium (not a bacterium)
  • live in salt lakes, dead sea
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9
Q

archaea domain: thermophiles

A
  • ex. sulfolobus
  • lives in sulfur rich hot springs
  • temperature 70 degree C
  • pH=2
  • thermophile and acidophile
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10
Q

archaea domain: methanogens

A
  • lives in swamps
  • break down organic matter to make methane
  • ex. methanobacterium (not a bacterium)
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11
Q

classification of bacteria

A
  • Bergey’s manual of systemic bacteriology has a classification scheme of evolutionary relationship among bacteria which is based on RNA sequence of bacteria
  • species is defined as a group of organisms with similar characteristics when it comes to bacteria
  • species of bacteria are subdivided into strains (subspecies)
  • subspecies have organisms within the species with slightly different characteristics
  • E. coli O157:H7 is a subspecies of E. coli that is found in the intestinal tract of cattle (normal flora) but is a pathogen for humans (bc of toxins it produces)
  • transmitted in undercooked hamburgers
  • causes bloody diarrhea (dysentery)
  • different subspecies can be harmful while others not
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12
Q

Bergey’s manual of determinative bacteriology

A
  • has identification scheme for bacteria
  • based on cell shape, gram reaction, and biochemical testing
  • we look for enzyme activity
  • urea -> urease -> ammonium ions
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13
Q

serology

A
  • diagnose infections, find enzyme activity
  • antigen and antibody rxns in vitro (in tube, slide)
  • antigen- foreign substance, non-self (ex. bacteria)
  • immune system makes antibodies -> proteins
  • antibodies bind to the antigen that stimulated their production and cause the antigen to agglutinate (clump)
  • antibody is specific for the antigen that stimulated its production
  • helps identify unknown bacteria, viruses and diagnose infections
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14
Q

serology procedure

A
  • bacteria are injected into a rabbit
  • rabbits immune system makes antibodies
  • they are released into the blood
  • draw the blood and separate the serum
  • that serum has the specific antibodies for that microbe
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15
Q

slide agglutination test

A
  • example of serological test
  • 2 unknown bacteria -> we want to know if they are salmonella
  • take a slide
  • place a drop of unknown 1 on the end of one side of the slide and the other unknown on the other side
  • place a drop of salmonella antiserum -> has antibodies against salmonella
  • look for agglutination
  • positive slide- the side with clumping is salmonella -> antibodies caused clumping bc it was specific to salmonella (vice versa)
  • takes a few minutes
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16
Q

rickettsias

A
  • gram negative
  • coccobacillus
  • *obligate intracellular parasites -> bacteria has to get into the host cell to reproduce (uncommon)
  • transmitted by insects such as ticks
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17
Q

obligate intracellular parasites

A
  • need a host cell in order to reproduce (uncommon)
  • rickettsia rickettsii
  • rocky mountain spotted fever
  • southeastern parts of the country
  • transmitted by ticks
  • rash on palms and soles
  • treated during the early stages of the disease
  • can cause damage to the kidneys
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18
Q

caulobacter

A
  • aquatic environments
  • *has a stalk
  • uses stalk to attach
  • attaches to algae and absorbs nutrients
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19
Q

Rhizobium

A
  • roots of plants beans and peas
  • beneficial bacteria
  • *converts nitrogen gas to ammonium ions -> nitrogen fixation
  • ammonium ions are used by the plants to make protein
  • beneficial to plants
  • plants use ammonia to make proteins
  • indirectly beneficial to humans and animals -> we eat the plants/cattle
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20
Q

Neisseria gonorrhoeae

A
  • pathogen
  • gonorrhea- STD
  • gram negative
  • diplococci
  • uses fimbriae to attach itself to the mucus membrane -> causes damage
  • painful urination, discharge of pus
  • if not treated -> pelvic inflammatory disease -> sterility
  • treated with cephalosporin and doxycycilne
  • also causes ophthalmia neonatorum -> eye infection of the newborn (picks up bacteria during birth)
  • leads to blindness, antibiotics are placed in the eyes as prophylaxis
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21
Q

neisseria meningitidis

A
  • also is gram neg, diplococci, fimbriae
  • some people are asymptomatic carriers
  • have the organisms in their throat
  • transmits bacteria in the aerosol (air)
  • meningitis -> throat infection
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22
Q

bordetella pertussis

A
  • gram negative
  • coccobacillus
  • whooping cough
  • grows on cilia lining the trachea
  • accumulation of mucous -> cough
  • DTP vaccine -> pertussis vaccine (dead)
  • heat killed bacteria
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23
Q

thiobacillus

A
  • *chemoautotroph -> doesnt get energy from glucose
  • gets energy from hydrogen sulfide
  • found in soil
  • gram negative
  • rod shaped (bacillus)
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24
Q

pseudomonas aeruginosa

A
  • gram negative
  • rod shaped
  • opportunist -> causes problems when someones immune system is weak
  • *makes a water soluble pigment (blue-green)
  • causes skin infection if the skin is damaged (burn victims are vulnerable)
  • burn and wound infections
  • gentamicin, polymyxin
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25
Q

escherichia coli

A
  • gram negative
  • bacilli
  • normal flora of the intestinal tract
  • opportunist (attacks in the intestinal tract when immune system is weak)
  • makes vitamin K otherwise
  • strain O157:H7 -> in the intestinal tract cattle -> pathogenic for humans
  • bloody diarrhea
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26
Q

salmonella typhi

A
  • gram negative
  • rod shaped
  • causes typhoid fever
  • found only in humans
  • carriers have the bacteria in the gallbladder
  • transmitted to other in contaminated food or water in poor sanitary practices
  • fluoroquinilones, chloramphenicol
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27
Q

salmonella enteritidis

A
  • causes salmonellosis
  • associated with chicken and cattle
  • transmitted through undercooked contaminated food
  • causes fever, abdominal pain, diarrhea
  • fluid and electrolyte therapy -> then use antibiotics
  • cooking the meat thoroughly can avoid this
  • type of food poisoning
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28
Q

opportunists

A
  • klebsiella pneumoniae- normal flora
  • proteus vulgaris
  • enterobacter
  • serratia marcescens- found in soil
  • that all have endotoxin- lipid A
  • if the endotoxin is released it causes septic shock
  • nosocomial infections- from the hospital (due to weakened immune system)
  • septic shock, pneumonia, urinary tract infections
  • all gram negative
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29
Q

yersinia pestis

A
  • gram negative
  • rod shape
  • causes plague
  • very deadly and contagious
  • fleas from rats
  • southwestern- transmission from squirrels, chipmunks
  • transmitted with direct contact
  • proliferate in the blood stream
  • causes buboes (swelling of lymph nodes) -> bubonic plague
  • mortality- 50 to 75%
  • streptomycin and tetracycline- prophylaxis -> treatment
  • pneumonic plague- if bacteria ends up in lungs -> spread through aerosol -> mortality rate is 100%
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30
Q

vibrio cholerae

A
  • gram negative
  • bent rod shape
  • single flagellum
  • transmitted in contaminated water
  • bacteria goes into intestine and produces a toxin -> cholera
  • causes cholera
  • cholera toxins attaches to cells lining the intestine -> stimulates the cells to release water and electrolytes
  • profuse and watery diarrhea
  • rice water stools -> mucus, epithelia cells, bacteria
  • can recover without antibiotics
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31
Q

chromatium*

A
  • gram negative
  • rod shape
  • lives in lakes and pounds
  • *anoxygenic photosynthesis
  • it doesnt make O2 it makes sulfur in place of O bc it uses hydrogen sulfide in place of H2O
  • hydrogen sulfide + CO2 -> sugar and sulfur
  • typically plants/algae carry out -> water + CO2 -> sugar + O2
  • anoxygenic photosynthesis
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32
Q

bdellovibrio

A
  • gram negative
  • bent rod shape
  • flagellum
  • lives in soil
  • *pathogenic to bacteria like e. coli
  • goes into the periplasmic space of e. coli-> between outer and plasma membrane
  • reproduces there
  • uses up nutrients for e. coli
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33
Q

desulfovibrio*

A
  • sediments of lake and ponds
  • *anaerobic respiration
  • sulfur is the final electron acceptor -> inorganic
  • bent rod
  • gram negative
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34
Q

cyanobacteria

A
  • gram negative
  • *carries on photosynthesis
  • aquatic environments
  • heterocysts- converts nitrogen to ammonium ions -> nitrogen fixation
  • uses CO2 and water to make glucose and O2
  • add oxygen and ammonium ions to atmosphere
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35
Q

chlamydia

A
  • gram negative
  • *obligate intracellular parasite -> must go into host cell to reproduce
  • two stages:
  • elementary body- usually extracellular, dormant
  • reticulate body- intracellular, active
  • elementary body (outside host) comes in contact with eukaryotic cell -> goes into cytoplasm -> becomes reticulate body -> reproduces -> transforms back to elementary -> host cell breaks down -> reticulates are released
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36
Q

chlamydia trachomatis

A
  • spread through sexual contact
  • most common STD
  • causes urethritis
  • treated by doxycycline
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37
Q

chlamydia trachomatis

A
  • common in the tropics, southwestern USA
  • spread through direct contact, flies, towels
  • causes eye infection, scarring of cornea
  • blindness
  • treated with tetracycline
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38
Q

chlamydia trachomatis

A
  • causes lymphogranuloma venereum- STD
  • tropic, southeastern USA
  • grows in the lymphatic system
  • causes obstruction of lymph vessels
  • treated with doxycycline
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39
Q

spirochetes

A
  • spiral shaped, axial filaments (movement)

- treponema pallidum- syphilis

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40
Q

treponema pallidum*

A
  • spirochetes
  • syphilis
  • STD
  • primary stage- ulcer at site of inoculation
  • secondary stage- bloodstream, rash on the skin and mucous membrane
  • if secondary stage isnt treated -> no symptoms
  • tertiary syphilis -> blindness, insanity, heart problems (no treatment)
  • congenital syphilis- from the mother to fetus -> stillbirth
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41
Q

borrelia burgdorferi

A
  • spirochete
  • causes lyme disease
  • transmitted by ticks from field mice
  • *rash at the bite site -> bulls eye rash
  • flu like symptoms
  • paralysis, heart problems
  • arthritis
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42
Q

leptospira interrogans

A
  • spirochete
  • causes leptospirosis
  • *has hooked ends
  • spread by infected or carrier dogs -> urine
  • contaminated soil or water
  • nonspecific symptoms
  • damage to the liver and kidneys
43
Q

bacteroides*

A
  • obligate anaerobes
  • gram negative
  • rod shape
  • normal flora- intestinal tract and oral cavity
  • opportunist- infects surgical wounds and puncture wounds
44
Q

mycoplasma pneumoniae*

A
  • *no cell wall
  • only has plasma membrane
  • pleomorphic- has irregular morphology -> depends on the medium its growing on
  • different arrangements
  • transmitted by aerosol
  • walking pneumonia- mild symptoms
  • not bedridden
45
Q

clostridium*

A
  • gram positive
  • obligate anaerobe- can only grow in the absence of oxygen (most bacteria is facultative anaerobe)
  • makes endospores
  • found in soil -> deep enough there is no O2
  • 3 pathogenic species
46
Q

clostridium tetani

A
  • causes tetanus
  • infects deep puncture wounds
  • endospores becomes vegetative cells in the puncture wounds (found in soil)
  • vegetative cells produces neurotoxin
  • vegetative cells stay in the wound but the neurotoxin goes in the blood and nervous system
  • causes spastic paralysis -> stiffness of the muscles
  • lockjaw
  • DTP vaccine- made up of tetanus toxoid (inactive)
  • antitoxin- made up of antibodies specific for tetanus toxin
  • antibodies are known as tetanus immune globulins (TIG)
47
Q

clostridium botulinum

A
  • causes botulism
  • caused by improperly canned food
  • food poisoning
  • endospores germinate into vegetative cells -> release neurotoxin
  • causes flaccid paralysis
  • double vision, drooping eyelids
  • toxin is heat labile -> sensitive
48
Q

clostridium perfringens

A
  • endospores are found in soil
  • associated with gas gangrene
  • gangrene- death of a tissue due to the loss of blood supply
  • gangrene is caused by bullet wounds, frost bites
  • once you have gangrene the bacteria infects and causes gas gangrene
  • endospores end up in the dead tissue and germinate
  • ferments carbohydrates and releases gas (also releases toxins)
  • releases so much gas the skin rips
  • toxins kill cells
  • treatment is amputation
49
Q

bacillus anthracis*

A
  • causes anthrax
  • makes endospores
  • facultative anaerobe
  • gram positive
  • associated with sheep and cattle
  • endospores are in the soil
  • animals eat the endospores -> go into blood
  • endospores germinate into vegetative cells
  • causes septicemia -> growth of bacteria in blood
  • can be transmitted to humans (people who work with animals)
  • cutaneous anthrax- bacteria infects cuts and breaks in skin
  • inhalation anthrax- wools sorters disease -> dangerous form of pneumonia -> releases toxins
  • treated with tetracycline (only in early stages)
50
Q

lactobacillus*

A
  • gram positive
  • rod shaped
  • aerotolerant anaerobe- even in presence of O2 it doesnt use bc it has no ETC
  • fermentation
  • produces lactic acid
  • normal flora- in intestinal tract, oral cavity
  • used in yogurt production (alive)
  • beneficial
51
Q

staphylococcus aureus*

A
  • normal flora of skin
  • gram positive
  • cocci
  • one strain causes food poisoning
  • grows on custard, cream pie (sugars) -> toxins
  • heat stable- reheating doesnt prevent food poisoning
  • refrigerate the food product to prevent- bacteria grows slow
52
Q

streptococcus pyogenes*

A
  • gram positive
  • cocci in chains
  • normal flora of throat
  • transmitted in aerosol
  • can cuase pharyngitis -> Step throat
  • subspecies -> lysogenized strain -> causes scarlet fever
  • lysogenized strain- phage DNA is inserted in the chromosome of the bacteria -> phage DNA has gene to make toxin
  • erythrogenic toxin is produced (coded by phage DNA)
  • bacteria stays in throat but toxin spreads
  • causes pinkish red rash on skin
  • tongue becomes red and enlarged -> Strawberry tongue
53
Q

corynebacterium diphtheriae*

A
  • gram positive
  • pleomorphic
  • irregular morphology
  • transmitted in aerosol
  • causes throat infection
  • tough grey membrane made up of fibrin, dead tissue, bacteria in the throat
  • lysogenized strain (phage DNA) of this produces diphtheria toxin
  • diphtheria toxin kills eukaryotic cells
  • causes damage to the heart and kidneys
  • DTP vaccine- made up of toxoid (inactivated toxin)
  • treated with antitoxin (has anitbodies)
54
Q

mycobacterium tuberculosis

A
  • acid fast bacteria
  • has mycolic acid in cell wall
  • rod shaped
  • transmitted through aerosol
  • can be dormant for years
  • when immune system is weak -> bacteria is activated
  • spread from lungs to other parts of body
  • cough, weight loss, spitting blood
  • consumption
  • isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol
  • BCG vaccine
55
Q

mycobacterium bovis

A
  • causes bovine tuberculosis
  • tuberculosis in cattle
  • transmitted in contaminated milk
  • infects the bones
  • used to be common before pasteurization
  • causes hunchbacked deformation of spine
  • BCG vaccine- avirulent strain of M. bovis (nonpathogenic strain is used)
56
Q

mycobacterium leprae

A
  • causes leprosy or hansens disease
  • optimum growth at 30C
  • grows on face, fingers, toes (cooler parts)
  • causes nodules and deformation of hands, face, feet
  • transmitted in nasal secretions
57
Q

streptomyces

A
  • beneficial
  • live in soil
  • most of the antibiotics
  • makes a chemical -> geosmin -> gives soil its unique smell
58
Q

structure of viruses

A
  • acellular
  • no cytoplasm, no organelles, no plasma membrane
  • either have RNA or DNA
  • surrounded by a protein coat (capsid)
  • some viruses have an envelope around capsid- proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
  • envelope has spikes made up of protein or glycoprotein
  • obligate intracellular parasites -> need host to reproduce
59
Q

bacteriophage

A
  • complex virus
  • has a capsid
  • DNA is within the capsid
  • capsid and tail fibers are attached to the sheath
60
Q

T even phages: lytic cycle

A
  • T even phage
  • attachment to e. coli cell
  • bacterial cell must have the receptor for the phage (receptor has 2 functions)
  • penetration- DNA of the phage is injected into the cytoplasm of the bacterial cell
  • capsid stay on the surface (outside) of the bacterial cell
  • biosynthesis of the phage- phage takes over the enzymes and ribosomes that are in the bacteria
  • phage DNA is replicated and phage proteins are made using the bacterial enzymes and ribosomes
  • maturation of the phage- assembly of the phage to make a complete phage particle
  • release- bacterial cell breaks down and the phage particles are released -> go on to infect other bacterial cells
  • reproduction of the phage results in the lysis of the cell -> lytic cycle
61
Q

lambda phage: lysogenic cycle and lytic cycle

A
  • can reproduce using lytic cycle but also the lysogenic cycle:
  • attachment to the bacterial cell (e. coli)
  • penetration of the phage DNA into the cytoplasm of the bacteria
  • phage DNA is inserted into the chromosome into the bacteria
  • phage DNA is now known as the prophage -> the cell is known as the lysogenized cell
  • lysogenized cell is more dangerous/pathogenic bc they make toxins bc the phage DNA has code for toxins
  • lysogenized cell can reproduce itself normally -> prophage is passed on to daughter cells
  • phage DNA is propagated
  • phage DNA pops out of the chromosome sometimes -> this happens when the medium runs out of nutrients
  • pops out of chromosome before it dies and then goes into lytic cycle -> biosynthesis
62
Q

animal viruses

A
  • animal virus that infects humans
  • papillomavirus (DNA virus)
  • some subspecies of this cause common warts- legs and hands
  • transmitted by contact
  • treated with interferon
  • different subspecies can cause genital warts
  • finger-like projections (cauliflower)
  • STD, can cause cervical cancer
63
Q

reproduction of DNA virus: papillomavirus

A
  • virus attaches to host cell (must have receptor)
  • penetration of the entire virus
  • host cell is eukaryotic
  • uncoding takes place in cytoplasm -> protein code is destroyed
  • viral DNA is released from capsid
  • viral DNA migrates to the nucleus of the host
  • biosynthesis of the viral DNA
  • viral DNA is transcribed to make mRNA
  • viral mRNA is used on the ribosomes to make viral proteins
  • maturation- different parts of the virus are assembled to make a complete viral particle
  • release of the viruses and the host cell breaks down -> infects other cells
64
Q

virion=

A

virus

65
Q

poliovirus*

A
  • RNA virus
  • transmitted by fecal oral route -> contaminated food or water
  • multiples in the throat and small intestine
  • virus can get into the CNS and multiple in the neurons -> paralysis
  • polio vaccine
66
Q

RNA virus reproduction: poliovirus

A
  • RNA virus attaches to the host cell if it has the receptor
  • penetration of the entire virus into the cytoplasm of the host
  • uncoding
  • capsid is broken down and viral RNA is released
  • viral RNA has a gene that codes for RNA dependent RNA polymerase
  • viral gene is translated and makes the RNA dependent RNA polymerase
  • RNA dependent RNA polymerase uses RNA as a template to make a complementary strand of RNA
  • many more copies of the viral genetic material (RNA) is made with this enzyme
  • viral RNA is translated to make capsid proteins
  • after biosynthesis there is maturation -> assembly of the virus -> viral RNA is enclosed with the protein code
  • release of virus and host cell breaks down -> spread and infects
  • **RNA virus never gets into the nucleus of the host
67
Q

retrovirus

A
  • RNA- genetic material
  • has the enzyme reverse transcriptase
  • reverse transcriptase- uses RNA as a template to make a complementary strand of DNA
  • capsid and envelope
  • ex. human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
68
Q

reproduction of retrovirus: HIV

A
  • retrovirus attaches to the host if it has the receptor
  • specific type of WBC has the receptor
  • penetration of the virus
  • uncoding- capsid and envelope of the virus is broken down -> viral RNA and reverse transcriptase is released
  • viral RNA is used by the reverse transcriptase to reproduce -> makes DNA
  • viral DNA migrates to the nucleus of the host
  • viral DNA inserts itself into the chromosome -> becomes a provirus
  • can stay dormant as a provirus
  • sometimes the virus is activated -> biosynthesis
  • viral RNA is made and makes viral proteins
  • maturation- assembly to make a complete virus
  • virus is released from the host cell through budding -> a segment of plasma membrane surrounds the virus and becomes the envelope during budding
69
Q

latent viral infection

A
  • ex. herpes simplex virus
  • herpes simplex virus 1 causes oral herpes
  • very common
  • people get it during infancy through direct contact
  • virus ends up in neurons and stays dormant
  • virus is activated by fever, sunburn, and stress
  • once activated it grows in epithelial cells around the lips -> rash -> cold sores
70
Q

herpes simplex virus 2

A
  • causes genital herpes
  • STD
  • virus stays dormant in some neurons
  • activated by stress
  • once activated vesicles show up in the area
  • causes burning, difficulty walking
  • treated with acyclovir -> prevents reproduction of virus (cant destroy)
71
Q

virus and cancer

A
  • nucleated cells have proto-oncogenes
  • proto-oncogenes control (regulate) cell growth
  • if there is a mutation in proto-oncogenes -> abnormal proteins are made
  • loss of control -> no regulation
  • uncontrolled proliferation of the cell with mutation -> cancer
72
Q

mutations

A
  • caused by chemicals, UV light, and viruses
  • virus can mess up nitrogen base sequence once inserted
  • epstein-barr virus- DNA virus -> causes cancer
73
Q

epstein-barr virus*

A
  • DNA virus -> causes cancer
  • dormant in some b lymphocytes
  • most people have this
  • transmitted in saliva
  • causes infectious mononucleosis
  • leads to burkitts lymphoma
  • common childhood cnacer in africa
  • average age of 7
  • commin in africa bc malaria is common too
  • EBV and plasmodium must be present bc they cause mutation in proto-oncogene: c-myc gene together
  • loss of control of cell growth
  • uncontrolled proliferation
  • leads to cancer of jaw bone
74
Q

prions

A
  • proteinaceous infectious particles
  • proteins
  • no genetic material
  • cause scrapie in sheep
  • scrape themselves against fences
  • become paralyzed and die
  • prions cause damage to the brain
  • causes mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy- BSE)- sponge like degeneration of the brain
  • shake and shiver -> paralysis and die
  • cows fed with sheep biproducts contaminated with infected prions caught disease
75
Q

creutzfeldt*

A
  • mad cow disease can be transmitted to humans
  • transmitted by contaminated hamburgers
  • jakob disease
  • causes damage to brain
  • causes demetia
  • die within year
76
Q

viroids

A
  • naked piece of RNA (no coat)
  • only difference between virus is that there is no coating (capsid)
  • plant pathogen
  • potato spindle tuber viroid
  • damage to potato plants
  • evolved from introns of plant cells
77
Q

synthetic drugs

A
  • synthesized in the lab
  • do not exist in nature
  • isoniazid
  • ethambutol
  • sulfanilamide
  • fluroquinolones
78
Q

isoniazid

A
  • synthetic drug
  • inhibits mycolic acid synthesis
  • effective against mycobacterium tuberculosis
  • mycobacterium is acid fast
79
Q

ethambutol

A
  • synthetic drug
  • inhibits mycolic acid
  • also used to mycobacterium tuberculosis
  • inhibits mycolic acid synthesis
80
Q

sulfanilamide

A
  • synthetic drug
  • inhibits folic acid synthesis
  • inactivates the enzyme that converts PABA to folic acid
  • used to treat UTIs
81
Q

fluroquinolones

A
  • synthetic drug
  • inhibits DNA synthesis
  • used to treat typhoid fever and shigellosis
82
Q

penicillin

A
  • antibiotics
  • made by mold -> penicillium notatum
  • inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis
83
Q

bacitracin

A
  • antibiotic
  • made by species of bacteria -> bacillus
  • inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis
  • used for topical applications (skin)
84
Q

polymyxin

A
  • antibiotic
  • made by bacteria -> bacillus
  • damages plasma membrane
  • topical treatment (skin)
85
Q

rifampin

A
  • antibiotic
  • made by bacteria -> Streptomyces
  • inhibits RNA synthesis
  • used to treated against mycobacteria tuberculosis
86
Q

antibiotics

A
  • most are made by Streptomyces
  • penicillin
  • bacitracin
  • polymyxin
  • rifampin
87
Q

antifungal drugs

A
  • amphotericin B

- nystatin

88
Q

amphotericin B

A
  • antifungal drug
  • made by streptomyces
  • damages the plasma membrane
  • treats systemic mycosis like histoplasmosis
89
Q

nystatin

A
  • antifungal drug
  • made by streptomyces
  • damages plasma membrane
  • treats candida infections
90
Q

antiviral drugs

A
  • acyclovir

- zidovudine

91
Q

acyclovir

A
  • antiviral drug
  • inhibits the synthesis of viral DNA
  • effective against herpes simplex virus
92
Q

zidovudine (AZT)

A
  • antiviral drug
  • AZT
  • inactivates the reverse transcriptase (viral enzyme in retrovirus)
  • can cause anemia in some cases
  • used to treat HIV infection
93
Q

antiprotozoan drugs

A
  • chloroquine

- metronidazole

94
Q

cholorquine

A
  • antiprotozoan drug

- treats malaria caused by plasmodium

95
Q

metronidazole

A
  • antiprotozoan drugs
  • treats protozoa infestations like giardiasis, amoebic dysentery
  • inhibits metabolism in an anaerobic environment
96
Q

antihelminthic drugs

A
  • niclosomide
  • praxiquantel
  • mebendazole
97
Q

niclosomide

A
  • antihelminthic drugs
  • inhibits ATP synthesis in mitochondria
  • treats tapeworm infestations
  • tinea saginata, tinea solium
98
Q

praziquantel

A
  • antihelminthic drugs
  • damages plasma membrane
  • treats fluke infestation
  • westermani (lung fluke)
99
Q

mebendazole

A
  • antihelminthic drugs
  • inhibits microtubule formation
  • treats roundworm infestation (nematodes)
  • americanes, lumbricides
100
Q

resistance

A
  • some bacteria develop resistance
  • pick up R-plasmids- antibiotic resistance (more common)
  • mutations can result in the overproduction of the enzyme that is being inactivated by the drug (less common)
101
Q

R-plasmid resistance

A
  • r-negative cell (r-minus) -> doesnt have plasmid -> only has chromosome
  • when cell is treated with penicillin -> damage to peptidoglycan cell wall -> death
  • r-positive cell -> has the chromosome and r-plasmid -> r-plasmid has the code for the enzyme penicillinase
  • gene is translated by cell and penicillinase is made and destroys antibiotic
  • gram positive and resistant
102
Q

mutation resistance

A
  • e. sulfanilamide
  • under normal conditions the cell have the enzyme that converts para-amino benzoic acid (PABA) to folic acid
  • folic acid is needed to make DNA
  • wild type cells (no mutation)
  • when treated with sulfanilamide -> sulfanilamide attached to enzyme and inactivates -> bacteria dies
  • mutation causes overproduction of the enzyme -> more enzymes than there is sulfanilamide -> cannot inactive all enzymes
  • continue to catalyze PABA to folic acid
103
Q

improper use of antibiotics causes resistance

A
  • use of antibiotics in animal feed by farmers
  • normal flora of the cattle is usually made up of sensitive bacteria and some resistant
  • if animals are given antibiotics everyday -> it will kill sensitive bacteria
  • resistant bacteria stay alive
  • once the sensitive bacteria is killed the resistant bacteria has excess nutrients -> proliferate
  • overgrowth of resistant bacteria
  • eventually the entire normal flora of cow will be resistant
  • can be transmitted to humans through meat and it will be harder to treat these infections in humans

Microbiology (8 decks)

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