Lecture 3 Flashcards

1
Q

taxonomy

A
  • science of classification

- robert whittaker came up with the 5 kingdom system

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2
Q

kingdom

A
  • based on cell type: prokaryotic or eukaryotic
  • cellular organization- unicellular/multicellular
  • nutritional requirements- photosynthetic/nonphotosynthetic
  • created by robert whittaker
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3
Q

5 kingdoms

A

prokaryotae- prokaryotic organisms (bacteria)

  • protista- eukaryotic, unicellular (amoeba)
  • fungi- eukaryotic- yeast and mold
  • plants- all plants- conifers, flowering plants
  • animals- all animals, insects, worms, vertebrates
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4
Q

domain

A
  • based on ribosomal RNA sequence
  • *bacteria
  • *archaea
  • *eukarya
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5
Q

bacteria domain

A
  • normal flora
  • pathogens
  • have peptidoglycan cell wall
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6
Q

archaea domain

A
  • prokaryotic
  • unusual organisms
  • extreme environment- hot springs, dead sea, salt lakes
  • cell walls are made of pseudomurein
  • ex. sulfolobus
  • 3 groups: halophiles, thermophiles, methanogens
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7
Q

eukarya domain

A
  • protista
  • fungi
  • plant
  • animal
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8
Q

archaea domain: halophiles

-

A
  • need high concentration of salt
  • at least 30%
  • ex. halobacterium (not a bacterium)
  • live in salt lakes, dead sea
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9
Q

archaea domain: thermophiles

A
  • ex. sulfolobus
  • lives in sulfur rich hot springs
  • temperature 70 degree C
  • pH=2
  • thermophile and acidophile
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10
Q

archaea domain: methanogens

A
  • lives in swamps
  • break down organic matter to make methane
  • ex. methanobacterium (not a bacterium)
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11
Q

classification of bacteria

A
  • Bergey’s manual of systemic bacteriology has a classification scheme of evolutionary relationship among bacteria which is based on RNA sequence of bacteria
  • species is defined as a group of organisms with similar characteristics when it comes to bacteria
  • species of bacteria are subdivided into strains (subspecies)
  • subspecies have organisms within the species with slightly different characteristics
  • E. coli O157:H7 is a subspecies of E. coli that is found in the intestinal tract of cattle (normal flora) but is a pathogen for humans (bc of toxins it produces)
  • transmitted in undercooked hamburgers
  • causes bloody diarrhea (dysentery)
  • different subspecies can be harmful while others not
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12
Q

Bergey’s manual of determinative bacteriology

A
  • has identification scheme for bacteria
  • based on cell shape, gram reaction, and biochemical testing
  • we look for enzyme activity
  • urea -> urease -> ammonium ions
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13
Q

serology

A
  • diagnose infections, find enzyme activity
  • antigen and antibody rxns in vitro (in tube, slide)
  • antigen- foreign substance, non-self (ex. bacteria)
  • immune system makes antibodies -> proteins
  • antibodies bind to the antigen that stimulated their production and cause the antigen to agglutinate (clump)
  • antibody is specific for the antigen that stimulated its production
  • helps identify unknown bacteria, viruses and diagnose infections
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14
Q

serology procedure

A
  • bacteria are injected into a rabbit
  • rabbits immune system makes antibodies
  • they are released into the blood
  • draw the blood and separate the serum
  • that serum has the specific antibodies for that microbe
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15
Q

slide agglutination test

A
  • example of serological test
  • 2 unknown bacteria -> we want to know if they are salmonella
  • take a slide
  • place a drop of unknown 1 on the end of one side of the slide and the other unknown on the other side
  • place a drop of salmonella antiserum -> has antibodies against salmonella
  • look for agglutination
  • positive slide- the side with clumping is salmonella -> antibodies caused clumping bc it was specific to salmonella (vice versa)
  • takes a few minutes
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16
Q

rickettsias

A
  • gram negative
  • coccobacillus
  • *obligate intracellular parasites -> bacteria has to get into the host cell to reproduce (uncommon)
  • transmitted by insects such as ticks
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17
Q

obligate intracellular parasites

A
  • need a host cell in order to reproduce (uncommon)
  • rickettsia rickettsii
  • rocky mountain spotted fever
  • southeastern parts of the country
  • transmitted by ticks
  • rash on palms and soles
  • treated during the early stages of the disease
  • can cause damage to the kidneys
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18
Q

caulobacter

A
  • aquatic environments
  • *has a stalk
  • uses stalk to attach
  • attaches to algae and absorbs nutrients
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19
Q

Rhizobium

A
  • roots of plants beans and peas
  • beneficial bacteria
  • *converts nitrogen gas to ammonium ions -> nitrogen fixation
  • ammonium ions are used by the plants to make protein
  • beneficial to plants
  • plants use ammonia to make proteins
  • indirectly beneficial to humans and animals -> we eat the plants/cattle
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20
Q

Neisseria gonorrhoeae

A
  • pathogen
  • gonorrhea- STD
  • gram negative
  • diplococci
  • uses fimbriae to attach itself to the mucus membrane -> causes damage
  • painful urination, discharge of pus
  • if not treated -> pelvic inflammatory disease -> sterility
  • treated with cephalosporin and doxycycilne
  • also causes ophthalmia neonatorum -> eye infection of the newborn (picks up bacteria during birth)
  • leads to blindness, antibiotics are placed in the eyes as prophylaxis
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21
Q

neisseria meningitidis

A
  • also is gram neg, diplococci, fimbriae
  • some people are asymptomatic carriers
  • have the organisms in their throat
  • transmits bacteria in the aerosol (air)
  • meningitis -> throat infection
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22
Q

bordetella pertussis

A
  • gram negative
  • coccobacillus
  • whooping cough
  • grows on cilia lining the trachea
  • accumulation of mucous -> cough
  • DTP vaccine -> pertussis vaccine (dead)
  • heat killed bacteria
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23
Q

thiobacillus

A
  • *chemoautotroph -> doesnt get energy from glucose
  • gets energy from hydrogen sulfide
  • found in soil
  • gram negative
  • rod shaped (bacillus)
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24
Q

pseudomonas aeruginosa

A
  • gram negative
  • rod shaped
  • opportunist -> causes problems when someones immune system is weak
  • *makes a water soluble pigment (blue-green)
  • causes skin infection if the skin is damaged (burn victims are vulnerable)
  • burn and wound infections
  • gentamicin, polymyxin
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25
escherichia coli
- gram negative - bacilli - normal flora of the intestinal tract - opportunist (attacks in the intestinal tract when immune system is weak) - makes vitamin K otherwise - strain O157:H7 -> in the intestinal tract cattle -> pathogenic for humans - bloody diarrhea
26
salmonella typhi
- gram negative - rod shaped - causes typhoid fever - found only in humans - carriers have the bacteria in the gallbladder - transmitted to other in contaminated food or water in poor sanitary practices - fluoroquinilones, chloramphenicol
27
salmonella enteritidis
- causes salmonellosis - associated with chicken and cattle - transmitted through undercooked contaminated food - causes fever, abdominal pain, diarrhea - fluid and electrolyte therapy -> then use antibiotics - cooking the meat thoroughly can avoid this - type of food poisoning
28
opportunists
- klebsiella pneumoniae- normal flora - proteus vulgaris - enterobacter - serratia marcescens- found in soil - that all have endotoxin- lipid A - if the endotoxin is released it causes septic shock - nosocomial infections- from the hospital (due to weakened immune system) - septic shock, pneumonia, urinary tract infections - all gram negative
29
yersinia pestis
- gram negative - rod shape - causes plague - very deadly and contagious - fleas from rats - southwestern- transmission from squirrels, chipmunks - transmitted with direct contact - proliferate in the blood stream - causes buboes (swelling of lymph nodes) -> bubonic plague - mortality- 50 to 75% - streptomycin and tetracycline- prophylaxis -> treatment - pneumonic plague- if bacteria ends up in lungs -> spread through aerosol -> mortality rate is 100%
30
vibrio cholerae
- gram negative - bent rod shape - single flagellum - transmitted in contaminated water - bacteria goes into intestine and produces a toxin -> cholera - causes cholera - cholera toxins attaches to cells lining the intestine -> stimulates the cells to release water and electrolytes - profuse and watery diarrhea - rice water stools -> mucus, epithelia cells, bacteria - can recover without antibiotics
31
chromatium*
- gram negative - rod shape - lives in lakes and pounds - *anoxygenic photosynthesis - it doesnt make O2 it makes sulfur in place of O bc it uses hydrogen sulfide in place of H2O - hydrogen sulfide + CO2 -> sugar and sulfur - typically plants/algae carry out -> water + CO2 -> sugar + O2 - anoxygenic photosynthesis
32
bdellovibrio
- gram negative - bent rod shape - flagellum - lives in soil - *pathogenic to bacteria like e. coli - goes into the periplasmic space of e. coli-> between outer and plasma membrane - reproduces there - uses up nutrients for e. coli
33
desulfovibrio*
- sediments of lake and ponds - *anaerobic respiration - sulfur is the final electron acceptor -> inorganic - bent rod - gram negative
34
cyanobacteria
- gram negative - *carries on photosynthesis - aquatic environments - heterocysts- converts nitrogen to ammonium ions -> nitrogen fixation - uses CO2 and water to make glucose and O2 - add oxygen and ammonium ions to atmosphere
35
chlamydia
- gram negative - *obligate intracellular parasite -> must go into host cell to reproduce - two stages: - elementary body- usually extracellular, dormant - reticulate body- intracellular, active - elementary body (outside host) comes in contact with eukaryotic cell -> goes into cytoplasm -> becomes reticulate body -> reproduces -> transforms back to elementary -> host cell breaks down -> reticulates are released
36
chlamydia trachomatis
- spread through sexual contact - most common STD - causes urethritis - treated by doxycycline
37
chlamydia trachomatis
- common in the tropics, southwestern USA - spread through direct contact, flies, towels - causes eye infection, scarring of cornea - blindness - treated with tetracycline
38
chlamydia trachomatis
- causes lymphogranuloma venereum- STD - tropic, southeastern USA - grows in the lymphatic system - causes obstruction of lymph vessels - treated with doxycycline
39
spirochetes
- spiral shaped, axial filaments (movement) | - treponema pallidum- syphilis
40
treponema pallidum*
- spirochetes - syphilis - STD - primary stage- ulcer at site of inoculation - secondary stage- bloodstream, rash on the skin and mucous membrane - if secondary stage isnt treated -> no symptoms - tertiary syphilis -> blindness, insanity, heart problems (no treatment) - congenital syphilis- from the mother to fetus -> stillbirth
41
borrelia burgdorferi
- spirochete - causes lyme disease - transmitted by ticks from field mice - *rash at the bite site -> bulls eye rash - flu like symptoms - paralysis, heart problems - arthritis
42
leptospira interrogans
- spirochete - causes leptospirosis - *has hooked ends - spread by infected or carrier dogs -> urine - contaminated soil or water - nonspecific symptoms - damage to the liver and kidneys
43
bacteroides*
- obligate anaerobes - gram negative - rod shape - normal flora- intestinal tract and oral cavity - opportunist- infects surgical wounds and puncture wounds
44
mycoplasma pneumoniae*
- *no cell wall - only has plasma membrane - pleomorphic- has irregular morphology -> depends on the medium its growing on - different arrangements - transmitted by aerosol - walking pneumonia- mild symptoms - not bedridden
45
clostridium*
- gram positive - obligate anaerobe- can only grow in the absence of oxygen (most bacteria is facultative anaerobe) - makes endospores - found in soil -> deep enough there is no O2 - 3 pathogenic species
46
clostridium tetani
- causes tetanus - infects deep puncture wounds - endospores becomes vegetative cells in the puncture wounds (found in soil) - vegetative cells produces neurotoxin - vegetative cells stay in the wound but the neurotoxin goes in the blood and nervous system - causes spastic paralysis -> stiffness of the muscles - lockjaw - DTP vaccine- made up of tetanus toxoid (inactive) - antitoxin- made up of antibodies specific for tetanus toxin - antibodies are known as tetanus immune globulins (TIG)
47
clostridium botulinum
- causes botulism - caused by improperly canned food - food poisoning - endospores germinate into vegetative cells -> release neurotoxin - causes flaccid paralysis - double vision, drooping eyelids - toxin is heat labile -> sensitive
48
clostridium perfringens
- endospores are found in soil - associated with gas gangrene - gangrene- death of a tissue due to the loss of blood supply - gangrene is caused by bullet wounds, frost bites - once you have gangrene the bacteria infects and causes gas gangrene - endospores end up in the dead tissue and germinate - ferments carbohydrates and releases gas (also releases toxins) - releases so much gas the skin rips - toxins kill cells - treatment is amputation
49
bacillus anthracis*
- causes anthrax - makes endospores - facultative anaerobe - gram positive - associated with sheep and cattle - endospores are in the soil - animals eat the endospores -> go into blood - endospores germinate into vegetative cells - causes septicemia -> growth of bacteria in blood - can be transmitted to humans (people who work with animals) - cutaneous anthrax- bacteria infects cuts and breaks in skin - inhalation anthrax- wools sorters disease -> dangerous form of pneumonia -> releases toxins - treated with tetracycline (only in early stages)
50
lactobacillus*
- gram positive - rod shaped - aerotolerant anaerobe- even in presence of O2 it doesnt use bc it has no ETC - fermentation - produces lactic acid - normal flora- in intestinal tract, oral cavity - used in yogurt production (alive) - beneficial
51
staphylococcus aureus*
- normal flora of skin - gram positive - cocci - one strain causes food poisoning - grows on custard, cream pie (sugars) -> toxins - heat stable- reheating doesnt prevent food poisoning - refrigerate the food product to prevent- bacteria grows slow
52
streptococcus pyogenes*
- gram positive - cocci in chains - normal flora of throat - transmitted in aerosol - can cuase pharyngitis -> Step throat - subspecies -> lysogenized strain -> causes scarlet fever - lysogenized strain- phage DNA is inserted in the chromosome of the bacteria -> phage DNA has gene to make toxin - erythrogenic toxin is produced (coded by phage DNA) - bacteria stays in throat but toxin spreads - causes pinkish red rash on skin - tongue becomes red and enlarged -> Strawberry tongue
53
corynebacterium diphtheriae*
- gram positive - pleomorphic - irregular morphology - transmitted in aerosol - causes throat infection - tough grey membrane made up of fibrin, dead tissue, bacteria in the throat - lysogenized strain (phage DNA) of this produces diphtheria toxin - diphtheria toxin kills eukaryotic cells - causes damage to the heart and kidneys - DTP vaccine- made up of toxoid (inactivated toxin) - treated with antitoxin (has anitbodies)
54
mycobacterium tuberculosis
- acid fast bacteria - has mycolic acid in cell wall - rod shaped - transmitted through aerosol - can be dormant for years - when immune system is weak -> bacteria is activated - spread from lungs to other parts of body - cough, weight loss, spitting blood - consumption - isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol - BCG vaccine
55
mycobacterium bovis
- causes bovine tuberculosis - tuberculosis in cattle - transmitted in contaminated milk - infects the bones - used to be common before pasteurization - causes hunchbacked deformation of spine - BCG vaccine- avirulent strain of M. bovis (nonpathogenic strain is used)
56
mycobacterium leprae
- causes leprosy or hansens disease - optimum growth at 30C - grows on face, fingers, toes (cooler parts) - causes nodules and deformation of hands, face, feet - transmitted in nasal secretions
57
streptomyces
- beneficial - live in soil - most of the antibiotics - makes a chemical -> geosmin -> gives soil its unique smell
58
structure of viruses
- acellular - no cytoplasm, no organelles, no plasma membrane - either have RNA or DNA - surrounded by a protein coat (capsid) - some viruses have an envelope around capsid- proteins, carbohydrates, lipids - envelope has spikes made up of protein or glycoprotein - obligate intracellular parasites -> need host to reproduce
59
bacteriophage
- complex virus - has a capsid - DNA is within the capsid - capsid and tail fibers are attached to the sheath
60
T even phages: lytic cycle
- T even phage - attachment to e. coli cell - bacterial cell must have the receptor for the phage (receptor has 2 functions) - penetration- DNA of the phage is injected into the cytoplasm of the bacterial cell - capsid stay on the surface (outside) of the bacterial cell - biosynthesis of the phage- phage takes over the enzymes and ribosomes that are in the bacteria - phage DNA is replicated and phage proteins are made using the bacterial enzymes and ribosomes - maturation of the phage- assembly of the phage to make a complete phage particle - release- bacterial cell breaks down and the phage particles are released -> go on to infect other bacterial cells - reproduction of the phage results in the lysis of the cell -> lytic cycle
61
lambda phage: lysogenic cycle and lytic cycle
- can reproduce using lytic cycle but also the lysogenic cycle: - attachment to the bacterial cell (e. coli) - penetration of the phage DNA into the cytoplasm of the bacteria - phage DNA is inserted into the chromosome into the bacteria - phage DNA is now known as the prophage -> the cell is known as the lysogenized cell - lysogenized cell is more dangerous/pathogenic bc they make toxins bc the phage DNA has code for toxins - lysogenized cell can reproduce itself normally -> prophage is passed on to daughter cells - phage DNA is propagated - phage DNA pops out of the chromosome sometimes -> this happens when the medium runs out of nutrients - pops out of chromosome before it dies and then goes into lytic cycle -> biosynthesis
62
animal viruses
- animal virus that infects humans - papillomavirus (DNA virus) - some subspecies of this cause common warts- legs and hands - transmitted by contact - treated with interferon - different subspecies can cause genital warts - finger-like projections (cauliflower) - STD, can cause cervical cancer
63
reproduction of DNA virus: papillomavirus
- virus attaches to host cell (must have receptor) - penetration of the entire virus - host cell is eukaryotic - uncoding takes place in cytoplasm -> protein code is destroyed - viral DNA is released from capsid - viral DNA migrates to the nucleus of the host - biosynthesis of the viral DNA - viral DNA is transcribed to make mRNA - viral mRNA is used on the ribosomes to make viral proteins - maturation- different parts of the virus are assembled to make a complete viral particle - release of the viruses and the host cell breaks down -> infects other cells
64
virion=
virus
65
poliovirus*
- RNA virus - transmitted by fecal oral route -> contaminated food or water - multiples in the throat and small intestine - virus can get into the CNS and multiple in the neurons -> paralysis - polio vaccine
66
RNA virus reproduction: poliovirus
- RNA virus attaches to the host cell if it has the receptor - penetration of the entire virus into the cytoplasm of the host - uncoding - capsid is broken down and viral RNA is released - viral RNA has a gene that codes for RNA dependent RNA polymerase - viral gene is translated and makes the RNA dependent RNA polymerase - RNA dependent RNA polymerase uses RNA as a template to make a complementary strand of RNA - many more copies of the viral genetic material (RNA) is made with this enzyme - viral RNA is translated to make capsid proteins - after biosynthesis there is maturation -> assembly of the virus -> viral RNA is enclosed with the protein code - release of virus and host cell breaks down -> spread and infects - **RNA virus never gets into the nucleus of the host
67
retrovirus
- RNA- genetic material - has the enzyme reverse transcriptase - reverse transcriptase- uses RNA as a template to make a complementary strand of DNA - capsid and envelope - ex. human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
68
reproduction of retrovirus: HIV
- retrovirus attaches to the host if it has the receptor - specific type of WBC has the receptor - penetration of the virus - uncoding- capsid and envelope of the virus is broken down -> viral RNA and reverse transcriptase is released - viral RNA is used by the reverse transcriptase to reproduce -> makes DNA - viral DNA migrates to the nucleus of the host - viral DNA inserts itself into the chromosome -> becomes a provirus - can stay dormant as a provirus - sometimes the virus is activated -> biosynthesis - viral RNA is made and makes viral proteins - maturation- assembly to make a complete virus - virus is released from the host cell through budding -> a segment of plasma membrane surrounds the virus and becomes the envelope during budding
69
latent viral infection
- ex. herpes simplex virus - herpes simplex virus 1 causes oral herpes - very common - people get it during infancy through direct contact - virus ends up in neurons and stays dormant - virus is activated by fever, sunburn, and stress - once activated it grows in epithelial cells around the lips -> rash -> cold sores
70
herpes simplex virus 2
- causes genital herpes - STD - virus stays dormant in some neurons - activated by stress - once activated vesicles show up in the area - causes burning, difficulty walking - treated with acyclovir -> prevents reproduction of virus (cant destroy)
71
virus and cancer
- nucleated cells have proto-oncogenes - proto-oncogenes control (regulate) cell growth - if there is a mutation in proto-oncogenes -> abnormal proteins are made - loss of control -> no regulation - uncontrolled proliferation of the cell with mutation -> cancer
72
mutations
- caused by chemicals, UV light, and viruses - virus can mess up nitrogen base sequence once inserted - epstein-barr virus- DNA virus -> causes cancer
73
epstein-barr virus*
- DNA virus -> causes cancer - dormant in some b lymphocytes - most people have this - transmitted in saliva - causes infectious mononucleosis - leads to burkitts lymphoma - common childhood cnacer in africa - average age of 7 - commin in africa bc malaria is common too - EBV and plasmodium must be present bc they cause mutation in proto-oncogene: c-myc gene together - loss of control of cell growth - uncontrolled proliferation - leads to cancer of jaw bone
74
prions
- proteinaceous infectious particles - proteins - no genetic material - cause scrapie in sheep - scrape themselves against fences - become paralyzed and die - prions cause damage to the brain - causes mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy- BSE)- sponge like degeneration of the brain - shake and shiver -> paralysis and die - cows fed with sheep biproducts contaminated with infected prions caught disease
75
creutzfeldt*
- mad cow disease can be transmitted to humans - transmitted by contaminated hamburgers - jakob disease - causes damage to brain - causes demetia - die within year
76
viroids
- naked piece of RNA (no coat) - only difference between virus is that there is no coating (capsid) - plant pathogen - potato spindle tuber viroid - damage to potato plants - evolved from introns of plant cells
77
synthetic drugs
- synthesized in the lab - do not exist in nature - isoniazid - ethambutol - sulfanilamide - fluroquinolones
78
isoniazid
- synthetic drug - inhibits mycolic acid synthesis - effective against mycobacterium tuberculosis - mycobacterium is acid fast
79
ethambutol
- synthetic drug - inhibits mycolic acid - also used to mycobacterium tuberculosis - inhibits mycolic acid synthesis
80
sulfanilamide
- synthetic drug - inhibits folic acid synthesis - inactivates the enzyme that converts PABA to folic acid - used to treat UTIs
81
fluroquinolones
- synthetic drug - inhibits DNA synthesis - used to treat typhoid fever and shigellosis
82
penicillin
- antibiotics - made by mold -> penicillium notatum - inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis
83
bacitracin
- antibiotic - made by species of bacteria -> bacillus - inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis - used for topical applications (skin)
84
polymyxin
- antibiotic - made by bacteria -> bacillus - damages plasma membrane - topical treatment (skin)
85
rifampin
- antibiotic - made by bacteria -> Streptomyces - inhibits RNA synthesis - used to treated against mycobacteria tuberculosis
86
antibiotics
- most are made by Streptomyces - penicillin - bacitracin - polymyxin - rifampin
87
antifungal drugs
- amphotericin B | - nystatin
88
amphotericin B
- antifungal drug - made by streptomyces - damages the plasma membrane - treats systemic mycosis like histoplasmosis
89
nystatin
- antifungal drug - made by streptomyces - damages plasma membrane - treats candida infections
90
antiviral drugs
- acyclovir | - zidovudine
91
acyclovir
- antiviral drug - inhibits the synthesis of viral DNA - effective against herpes simplex virus
92
zidovudine (AZT)
- antiviral drug - AZT - inactivates the reverse transcriptase (viral enzyme in retrovirus) - can cause anemia in some cases - used to treat HIV infection
93
antiprotozoan drugs
- chloroquine | - metronidazole
94
cholorquine
- antiprotozoan drug | - treats malaria caused by plasmodium
95
metronidazole
- antiprotozoan drugs - treats protozoa infestations like giardiasis, amoebic dysentery - inhibits metabolism in an anaerobic environment
96
antihelminthic drugs
- niclosomide - praxiquantel - mebendazole
97
niclosomide
- antihelminthic drugs - inhibits ATP synthesis in mitochondria - treats tapeworm infestations - tinea saginata, tinea solium
98
praziquantel
- antihelminthic drugs - damages plasma membrane - treats fluke infestation - westermani (lung fluke)
99
mebendazole
- antihelminthic drugs - inhibits microtubule formation - treats roundworm infestation (nematodes) - americanes, lumbricides
100
resistance
- some bacteria develop resistance - pick up R-plasmids- antibiotic resistance (more common) - mutations can result in the overproduction of the enzyme that is being inactivated by the drug (less common)
101
R-plasmid resistance
- r-negative cell (r-minus) -> doesnt have plasmid -> only has chromosome - when cell is treated with penicillin -> damage to peptidoglycan cell wall -> death - r-positive cell -> has the chromosome and r-plasmid -> r-plasmid has the code for the enzyme penicillinase - gene is translated by cell and penicillinase is made and destroys antibiotic - gram positive and resistant
102
mutation resistance
- e. sulfanilamide - under normal conditions the cell have the enzyme that converts para-amino benzoic acid (PABA) to folic acid - folic acid is needed to make DNA - wild type cells (no mutation) - when treated with sulfanilamide -> sulfanilamide attached to enzyme and inactivates -> bacteria dies - mutation causes overproduction of the enzyme -> more enzymes than there is sulfanilamide -> cannot inactive all enzymes - continue to catalyze PABA to folic acid
103
improper use of antibiotics causes resistance
- use of antibiotics in animal feed by farmers - normal flora of the cattle is usually made up of sensitive bacteria and some resistant - if animals are given antibiotics everyday -> it will kill sensitive bacteria - resistant bacteria stay alive - once the sensitive bacteria is killed the resistant bacteria has excess nutrients -> proliferate - overgrowth of resistant bacteria - eventually the entire normal flora of cow will be resistant - can be transmitted to humans through meat and it will be harder to treat these infections in humans