FINAL review Flashcards

Question

endospores

Answer 1

- 2 genera of bacteria that make endospores are bacillus and clostridium - endospores are resistant to hostile environmental conditions (heat, UV light, disinfectant, desiccation) - dormant stage of the cell allows to avoid harsh environment and death - endospores are formed within the vegetative cell (active cell) - once formation is complete, endospores are released into environment - vegetative cells make endospores when the environment lacks nutrients

Answer 2

- malachite green- primary stain - water- decolorizer - safranin- counterstain - endospores=green - vegetative cells=pink - both vegetative and endospores pick up primary stain -> both turn green -> water decolorizes vegetative cells -> vegetative cells pick up counterstain (safranin) and turn pink -> endospores remain green

Answer 3

- segments of DNA are wrapped around histone proteins - these are packages - move through the nuclear pores - DNA + histone = nucleosome

Answer 4

- free in the cytoplasm - show up as dots in a micrograph - attached to rough ER - made up of 2 subunits - each subunit is made up of proteins and ribosomal RNA - eukaryotic cells has 80s ribosome - larger and denser than prokaryotic ribosomes (which is 70s) - prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Answer 5

- worms - multicellular - eukaryotic - animal kingdom - do not have a well developed nervous system or digestive system - they do have a complex reproductive system - platyhelminthes (flatworms) and nematodes (round worms)

Answer 6

- trematodes (flukes) - cestodes (tapeworms)- segmented, scolex - hermaphroditic

Answer 7

- tapeworm - eggs and larvae are infectious - neurocysticercosis

Answer 8

- roundworms | - dioecious- male and female

Answer 9

- flagella - 2 nuclei - contaminated food and water - weight loss - wilderness water

Answer 10

- cilia - paramecium - 2 nuclei - macronucleus- protein synthesis - micronucleus- transmit genetic information

Answer 11

- long, slender - flagellum - 1 nucleus - no cyst phase -> only trohphozite - ex. trypanoasoma gambiense (africian sleeping sickness) - ex. trypanosoma cruzi (chagas disease)

Answer 12

- unicellular - oval or circular in shape - many reproduce by budding - sometimes the buds fail to separate from the parent -> pseudohyphae are formed - Candida albicans make pseudohyphae (part of the normal flora of intestinal tract of humans)

Answer 13

- multicellular - filamentous - filaments are called hyphae - fragments of hypha can grow into a fungus

Answer 14

-antibiotics that target cell walls cause osmotic lysis -> kills

Answer 15

-study of yeast, molds, mushrooms

Answer 16

- affects the hair, nail, skin - ringworm, tineas - caused by the fungi- dermatophytes - produce keratinase- breaks down keratin - tinea pedia- atheletes foot: - caused by trichophyton rubrum- itching, scaling skin - spread by direct contact, shower room floors

Answer 17

- O2 | - water

Answer 18

-filamentous

Answer 19

- yeast - make pseudohyphae (part of the normal flora of intestinal tract of humans) - opportunistic mycosis - thrush - normal flora

Answer 20

- definitive host- adult -> sexual reproduction | - intermediate host- immature worm (larvae) -> asexual reproduction

Answer 21

-have no cilia

Answer 22

- disaccharide - milk sugar - made up of glucose and galactose

Answer 23

- disaccharide - made up of two glucoses - breakdown product of starch

Answer 24

- glucose is catabolized - oxidation reduction rxn - loss of electron or hydrogen atom- oxidation - gain of electron of hydrogen atom- reduction - leo says ger - these rxns are coupled - organic molecules are oxidized - NAD+- coenzyme/electron carrier picks up the H+ (reduced) -> NADH - doesnt need O2

Answer 25

- similar to aerobic respiration (all the same stages) - final e- acceptor is an inorganic substance other than O2 - pseudomonas aeruginosa uses nitrate ion as the final e- acceptor - doesnt produce as much ATP - more than 2 and less than 38 - depends on species

Answer 26

- only glycolysis takes place - glucose is broken down to 2 pyruvic acid - 2 NADH - 2 ATP - once pyruvic acid is made it is converted to lactic acid - NADH is oxidized to NAD+ - pyruvic acid gets reduced to lactic acid - regenerates NAD+ - NAD+ participates in glycolysis again to get 2 more ATP - pyruvic acid is the organic molecule final e- acceptor - lactobacillus does this (aerotolerant anaerobe- even in presence of O2 it doesnt use it)

Answer 27

- glylocysis - 2 ATP - 2 pyruvic acid - 2 NADH - pyruvic acid is converted to acetaldehyde - CO2 comes out - NADH is oxidized to NAD+ - acetaldehyde is reduced to ethanol - final e- acceptor is acetaldehyde - ex. saccharomyces- yeast (Facultative anaerobe- grows in presence or absence of O2 but grows better with O2) -> that means we must make sure there is no O2 to make alcohol - if there is O2 it will carryout aerobic respiration and make water

Answer 28

- chlorophyll - cell light hits cholophyll molecules - e- absorb light -> energized - e- jump out of chlorophyll molecule - e- go through electron transport chain in chloroplast - similar to aerobic respiration ETC - chemiosmosis -> makes ATP by photophosphorylation - energized e- ends up with NADP+ -> NADPH - e- that come out of chlorophyll molecule are replaced by e- from water -> breaks down water into O2 and H -> releases O2 - no CO2 used - ATP is made

Answer 29

segment of DNA that codes for a functional product - functional product- protein - most genes code for proteins - .1% of genes have instructions to make tRNA and rRNA - genes are passed on from one cell to another- one generation to another - DNA has to be replicated

Answer 30

where gene begins - control regions - unique nitrogen base sequence - made up of DNA

Answer 31

- transcription- DNA is copied onto mRNA - makes mRNA - enzyme - major role in transcription - attaches itself to the gene near the promoter - segment of gene separates - one strand is template strand (instructions) - attaches RNA nucleotides together -> chain - free RNA nucleotides are floating around where ever transcription is taking place - once nitrogen base are exposed on template strand complementary base pairing takes place between nitrogen base on the free RNA nucleotide and the nitrogen bases on the template strand - uracil on the free RNA pairs with the adenine on the template strand - RNA polymerase attaches the pairs - moves segment by segment - polymerase is released from the gene at the terminator - mRNA has a specific nitrogen base sequence

Answer 32

- 3 nitrogen base sequences next to each other on the mRNA - codes for an amino acid - different codons can code for the same amino acid -> degeneracy of the genetic code - associated with mRNA - ex. UAG

Answer 33

- helps cell survive under certain conditions - different codons can code for the same amino acid - silent mutation

Answer 34

- one end has anticodon - other end picks up amino acid from the cytosol - transfers amino acids from the cytosol to the ribosome - specific group of tRNA for each amino acid - specificity is based on the anticodon it has - reads the message - ex. tRNA is specific for alanine -> cant pick up any other amino acid -> specific anticodon for alanine

Answer 35

- holds mRNA so tRNA can read the message and bring the appropriate amino acid to the ribosome - has the enzyme that attaches amino acids together (peptide bonds)

Answer 36

- attachment of ribosome (large and small subunit) to the mRNA near the start codon - tRNA recognizes the codon - tRNA brings MET to the ribosome - complementary base pairing occurs on the codon on the mRNA and the anticodon on the tRNA - tRNA molecules are held in place and the amino acids are next to each other - enzyme attaches the amino acids together -> dipeptide - dipeptide gets transferred on to tRNA and it moves on to next segment - forms a polypeptide - ribosome reaches stop codon -> end of translation - polypeptide is released - tRNA subunits come apart - mRNA and tRNA is released from ribosome - mRNA is translated again to make another copy of the polypeptide chain

Answer 37

- 2 DNA in the same cell - piece of DNA is transferred from a donor to a recipient - bacteria has one DNA molecule - if genetic transfer takes place the bacteria can have 2 DNA molecules - 3 methods of transfer: - transformation - conjugation - transduction

Answer 38

- DNA from a donor cell is transferred to recipient - naked DNA transfer - donor cell is dead - when bacterial cell dies the DNA is released into the environment - DNA gets fragmented into pieces - recipient cell comes in contact - DNA penetrates cell wall of recipient -> 2 DNA molecules - own chromosome and donor DNA present - when the own chromosome and donor DNA come in contact -> crossing over - donor DNA aligns with complementary bases - *can make the recipient cell more pathogenic -> picks up genes that can code for capsules - becomes a capsulated bacteria- more pathogenic bc capsule protects bacteria from phagocytosis

Answer 39

- subspecies of the same cell - F+- has the pilus (filamentous structure found on the surface) and small circular DNA (F plasmid/factor) - F+ cell has plasmid and chromosome (they are separate) - F-- does not have pilus - F+ uses it pilus and attached to F- and conjugates - F plasmid- has genes for the pilus - plasmid gets replicated and copy gets transferred to the F- cell through the pilus - F- becomes F+ -> makes two F+ cells - F+ has 2 DNA molecules (chromosome and plasmid) - f plasmid gets inserted into chromosome -> becomes an Hfr cell (high frequency of recombination cell) - Hfr cell- very good at conjugation - Hfr cell- makes the pilus - Hfr and F- cell conjugation: - during conjugation the DNA gets replicated and starts in the middle of the f plasmid - piece of f plasmid and piece of chromosome get replicated and transferred into the F- cell - F- cell never gets the entire chromosome or plasmid bc it is much larger than the cell and they dont stay conjugated for long enough - F- gets only a piece of donor DNA and plasmid -> inserts into chromosome and becomes recombinant -> doesnt become F+ cell and does not make pilus - can make an F- cell resistant after it picks up DNA from another Hfr cell -> shares resistance

Answer 40

- DNA of donor cell is transferred with recipient cell - bacteriophage is a virus (acellular) that infects bacteria - bacteriophage picks up donor DNA and releases it into recipient cell - bacteriophage gets into host cell to reproduce itself - bacteriophage attached to donor cell - phage DNA gets released into host - phage DNA gets replicated - donor chromosome gets fragmented - assembly of phage takes place -> - by mistake sometimes fragments of bacterial DNA gets enclosed into the protein code of the phage - transducing phages- have bacterial DNA in them instead of phage DNA - donor cell breaks down and dies - phages are released including transducing phages - transducing phage comes in contact with bacteria and releases donor DNA into bacteria (receiving cell) - donor DNA gets inserted into the chromosome of the recipient cell -> recombinant - sometimes transducing phages pick up toxic genes and spreads it

Answer 41

- many genes are controlled by the same control region (promoter) - has many genes - controlled by the same control region (promoter) - regulation - genes of the same operon share a promoter

Answer 42

- repressor protein hop onto the operator protein and block RNA polymerase - when RNA polymerase attached to promoter it cannot get to structural genes bc of the repressor blockage - only when the RNA polymerase is able to pass over the structural genes will the mRNA of the structural genes will be made - no mRNA -> no translation -> no proteins - inactivates lactose operon - if lactose is in environment it will bind to repressor protein -> inactive repressor protein - pulls the repressor protein from the lactose operator -> no more blockage - RNA polymerase is able to make mRNA for the structural genes - lactose activates the lactose operator by inactivating the suppressor

Answer 43

- on the operator - if something is bound it is pulled form the operator -> inactive - if nothing is bound it block RNA polymerase from making mRNA of the structural genes

Answer 44

- beta galactosidase gene - helps the cell to save its energy and chemical resources such as amino acids - cell is not making something that it does not need - enzyme is made in presence of substrate

Answer 45

- have genes that code for enzymes that break down petroleum - found in pseudomonas - used in bioremediation- use of microbes to clean up chemical pollutants - clean oil

Answer 46

- code for toxins - toxic to certain species of bacteria - ex. lactococcus lactis has a bacteriocin plasmid - codes for toxin -> nisin - nisin prevents the germination of clostridium endospore - helps lactococcus lactis -> prevents growth of other bacteria so it has more nutrients for itself - preserve cheese - does not cause food poisoning

Answer 47

- small segment of DNA - transposed (move) one region of DNA to another - jumping genes - can cause problems by messing up sequences - doesnt move often tho - found in all organisms - simple transposons (insertion sequences)- has a gene that codes for an enzyme -> transposase - transposase- helps simple transposon to move from one part of the DNA to another -> cutting and sealing - translated from insertion - unique nitrogen base sequence on each side

Answer 48

- unique nitrogen base sequence on each side - made up of 2 insertion sequences - in between there is a gene that codes for antibiotic resistance - found in bacteria - often found in r-plasmid - can move from the plasmid to the chromosome - can be transferred through conjugation

Answer 49

- use plasmid (small circular DNA found in some bacterial cells) as a vector and insert a gene of interest (human insulin) into the plasmid - plasmid becomes a recombinant plasmid - recombinant plasmid is introduced into a bacterial cell (E. coli) -> becomes the recombinant cell/transformed bacteria - E. coli transcribes and translates the gene and makes the human insulin - once recombinant cell is made it can be grown in a nutrient broth like any other e. coli cell -> descendants of the recombinant will also be recombinant - easy to make a lot human insulin

Answer 50

- restriction enzymes come from bacteria - used to breakdown phage DNA in the bacteria - extract the restriction enzyme from bacteria and use it for genetic engineering - EcoR1, BamHI -> recognize specific sequences - restriction enzymes make staggered cuts in the DNA - they fragment DNA - ends of the fragment are single stranded - destroy phage DNA

Answer 51

- take a bunch of recombinants and put them into a tube with host cell (e. coli) - some of the e. coli will come in contact with the recombinant plasmid and pick it up and some will not - incubation - there will be two populations of e.coli (one with recombinant and one without) - they select the recombinant cell by plating the mixture on the medium with the ampicillin antibiotic -> incubate - the colonies that show up on the plate are the ones with the recombinant plasmids bc they have the selection markers (antibiotic resistant genes) in their plasmid

Answer 52

`-complementary DNA - cDNA does not exist in nature - cDNA- synthetic gene that only has exons - mRNA is used to make cDNA (by scientists- not in nature) - DNA nucleotides and reverse transcriptase enzymes are added to the tube with mRNA - reverse transcriptase uses mRNA as a template to make a complementary strand of DNA - DNA polymerase is then added to the tube and uses the DNA strand as a sample to make the second strand -> makes cDNA - cDNA only has exons - if we want to introduce eukaryotic gene into a prokaryotic cell we use cDNA - if we place natural eukaryotic gene into bacterial cell it wont be able to remove the introns - functional protein will not be produced by the prokaryotic cell - no translation

Answer 53

- introns- noncoding regions - exons- coding regions - prokaryotic genes only gave exons - when the eukaryotic gene is transcribed the RNA also has exons and introns - eukaryotic cells have certain enzymes that remove introns and stitch the exons to make the mRNA

Answer 54

- used in genetic screening - take blood and DNA - fragment DNA using restriction enzyme (made from bacteria) - DNA fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis by size - the DNA bands show up - smaller pieces move faster in the gel (more further down the smaller) - DNA bands are transferred onto nitrocellulose filter/membrane - nitrocellulose filter holds onto molecules like DNA - place the nitrocellulose filter and attached DNA into a zip lock bag - a solution containing many copies of the radioactively labeled probe (complementary to gene of interest) is added - incubate - probe will hybridize/comes together with gene of interest through complementary base pairing - remove and rinse nitrocellulose filter - expose to x-ray film - where ever there there is radioactive activity it will blacken -> tells us where the probe and therefore the gene of interest is - a black band shows up for carrier - a black band show up larger and wider for someone with the disease (bc twice as many copies of the gene of interest)

Answer 55

-single strand of DNA that is complementary to the DNA of interest

Answer 56

-polymerase chain reaction

Answer 57

- not new DNA - tRNA - make mRNA

Answer 58

-uses glucose for carbon and energy

Answer 59

- decrease pH | - cleave triglycerides

Answer 60

-photoautotroph

Answer 61

-grow with or without salt

Answer 62

- causes tetanus - infects deep puncture wounds - endospores becomes vegetative cells in the puncture wounds (found in soil) - vegetative cells produces neurotoxin * - vegetative cells stay in the wound but the neurotoxin goes in the blood and nervous system - causes spastic paralysis -> stiffness of the muscles - lockjaw - DTP vaccine- made up of tetanus toxoid (inactive) - antitoxin- made up of antibodies specific for tetanus toxin - antibodies are known as tetanus immune globulins (TIG)

Answer 63

- phage DNA is inserted in the chromosome of the bacteria -> phage DNA has gene to make toxin - scarlet fever - corynebacterium diphtheriae - streptococcus pyogenes- scarlet fever -> strawberry tongue

Answer 64

-no cell wall

Answer 65

-infectious DNA without capsid

Answer 66

- gram negative - rod shaped - opportunist -> causes problems when someones immune system is weak - *makes a water soluble pigment (blue-green) - causes skin infection if the skin is damaged (burn victims are vulnerable) - burn and wound infections - gentamicin, polymyxin

Answer 67

-axial filaments