Lecture 3 Flashcards
why observe?
- an observation is watching children with the clear goal of examining specific behaviors or abilities
- observations assist professionals in identifying diversity, developing supportive & effective intervention plans, and setting realistic outcome goals
how do you observe?
observe from a distance without the person knowing they are being observed
when someone realizes they’re being watched their behavior changes
choose which one is correct & which one is labeling someone:
1) tommy acts out his aggressive feelings
2) tommy is mean
1) correct
2) you don’t know tommy is mean
choose which one is correct and which is an assumption:
1) annie doesn’t want her brother to take her toy
2) annie doesn’t like to share
1) correct
2) you don’t know that maybe annies brother sucks
as OTs we cannot make _______. Therefore avoid assumptions you aren’t qualified to make
diagnoses
objective observations state
facts
ex: i saw, i counted, i observed, he said, she said etc
subjective observations convey
opinions, judgments, beliefs, biases, and/or assumptions
- anything you can infer without tangible evidence
ex: i believe, i feel
must have clinical background to give _______ opinions
subjective
anecdotal records
recorded observations of a child’s behavior
- helps test hypotheses regarding behavioral cause & effect
- identify conditions that reinforce behavior by noticing what happens prior to behavior
- gain feedback about what a child may have learned from an experience
timed sampling
observations taken at set intervals
tallies
provide a record of how often behavior happens over time
event sampling
document exactly what happens during a particular event
daily- therapy notes, circle time behaviors
or
circumstantially - incident reports - what, when & how an event occurs
check list
simplest form of observation
observer checks off listed behaviors
narrative
written summary of observed activities
life span developmental science seeks to:
- form theories that explain typical characteristics observed/seen
- describe behavioral characteristics across ages
- identify how people respond to life’s experiences
- understand factors that contribute to individual developmental differences
theories
orderly set of ideas which describe, predict & explain behavior
why are theories important
- to give meaning to what we observe
- as a basis for action
psychoanalytical theories
freud- psychosexual
erikson- psychosocial
behaviorism
pavlov/watson- classical conditioning
skinner - operant conditioning
social learning theory
bandera
biological theory
maturationism- G. Stanley Hall & Gesell
ethology: Lorenz
Attachment: bowlby
cognitive theory
cognitive development- piaget
sociocultural- vygotsky
information processing
systems theory
ecological systems- bronfenbrenner
classic stage theories
emphasize discontinuity with periods of stability & rapid transitions between stages
-Freud, erikson & piaget
incremental models
emphasize continuity, development as continuous incremental change
- behaviorist, social learning theory, information processing theory
Freud believed human actions & thoughts originate from
unconscious impulses & childhood conflicts
freud based psychosexual theory on
therapy with troubled adults
freud emphasized that a child’s ________ is formed by the ways which his parents managed his _____ & ______ drives
personality;
sexual;
aggressive
oral stage
freud
birth - 18 months
sensual focus is the mouth
- biting, chewing, sucking
anal stage
freud
1.5- 3 yrs
sensual focus is on the anus
expelling/retaining feces
phallic stage
freud
3 - 6 yrs
sensual focus is on the genital area
oedipal/electral complex
complex towards opposite sex parents<3
same sex parents = rival
latency stage
freud
6 - puberty
no sensual focus, represses sexuality
genital stage
freud
puberty - adult
sensual focus is on the genitals once again but more about becoming sexually intimate with others
erikson expanded on ____ theories
freud
erikson believed that development is _________ long
life
erikson emphasized that at each stage the child acquires
attitudes & skills resulting from the successful negotiation of the psychological conflict
changes in needs/social expectations create new challenges/crisises at each stage
trust vs mistrust
erikson
birth to 1 year
to develop trust an infants needs should be met
when care is inconsistent, mistrust occurs
autonomy vs shame & doubt
erikson
1 - 3 yrs
- child developing new motor & mental abilities
- parents should encourage autonomy
- if parents are impatient & do everything for child, or if they are too critical, child will begin to doubt themselves & feel shame
initiative vs. guilt
erikson
4-5 yrs old (pre-k)
- child = master of his body
- children who are given freedom & the opportunity to engage in tasks have sense of initiative reinforced
- if parents make the child feel bad or feel like a nuisance, or hinder play/fantasy, the child will develop a sense of guilt
industry vs inferiority
erikson
6-11 yrs old (elementary school)
- children begin to learn & play by rules
- children who are encouraged to make/do/build things will develop a sense of industry
- parents who see their child as mischevious/messy will develop a sense of inferiority
identity vs role confusion
erikson
12-18 yrs old
- seeks to find a romantic partner due to reawakened oedipal complex
- begin hypothetical thinking & thinking about what others think of them
- when an adolescent cannot attain sense of personal identity they show role confusion (sense of not knowing who they are or where they belong)
initimacy vs. isolation
erikson
late adolescence to young/early middle age
- people will reach out to find intimate relationship
- parent’s have indirectly contributed to the individual’s success or failure at the earlier stages
generativity vs self-absorption
erikson
(stagnation)
- ages: middle age
- concerned with others beyond immediate family, future generation & nature of society
- men may go through mid-life crisis
- women go through empty nest syndrome
integrity vs despair
erikson
- ages: elderly
- time for reflection on life
- hope to look back on life with satisfaction
- some look at life as a series of missed opportunities & now realize it is too late
- these people may look back & have despair over what may have been
behavioral & social learning theory
beliefs that describe the importance of the environment & nurturing in growth of a child
behaviorism is developed as a response to ______ & it became the dominant view from the ________
psychoanalytical theories;
1920s-1960s
Watson was the father of
american behaviorist theory
watson’s work was based off of _______. he researched ________
pavlov’s dogs experiments;
classical conditioning
children are passive beings who can be molded by controlling:
the stimulus response associations
BF skinner
operant conditioning
used rewards, consequences & extinction
extinction
results from behaviors which are neither rewarded/consequences
ignoring to make it go away
positive punishment
added stimuli - ex put a shock collar on dog to stop dog from leaving fence
negative punishment
take away toy when bad
positive reinforcement
give someone something
negative reinforcemnt
specific good behavior is followed by the removal of an aversive stimuli
albert bandura
- social learning theory
- stressed how children learn by observation & imitation
- believed that children gradually become more selective in what they imitate
“modeling”- children learn from what they observe & become selective in what they observe that applies to them
criticisms of learning theory
- oversimplified
- study in natural settings
- too little attention to cognition
cognitive theories
piaget & vygotsky - theories that focus on how we learn
piaget
- constructivism
- saw children as active learners building schemas & adaptations a combination of assimilation & accommodation
schema
constantly being reorganized
assimilation
fitting new info into existing knowledge
ex: zoo - point to zebra & say horse
accomodation
changing knowledge structures to fit what’s new – ex: learn a horse with stripes is really a zebra
______ states that logical reasoning skills emerge naturally in 4 stages – adults help by allowing children to ____ & by providing appropriate ___________
piaget;
explore;
learning experiences
sensorimotor stage
piaget
birth to 2 years old
- infant uses his senses & motor abilities to understand the world
- imitate others
- absence of representational thought –> presences & object permanence develops
- no planned actions
- no memory til 1 year therefore no separation anxiety
preoperational stage
piaget
2 - 7 years old
- mental representation of objects
- able to use symbolic thought & language
“grandma do you like my outfit” when talking on the phone
concrete operations stage
piaget 7 - 11 years old
- child uses logical operations or principles when solving problems
- spatial reasoning
- conservation of thoughts
formal operations stage
piaget 12 and up
- the use of logical operations in a systematic fashion with the ability to use abstractions
critique of piaget
- underestimates abilities of children
- overestimates the age differences in thinking
- vagueness about process of change
- lack of evidence for qualitatively different stages
- stage theory inconsistencies
- overlooks influence of cultural & social groups
vygotsky
incremental
socio-cultural theory
constructivism
vygotsky agreed that children are ____ learners, but knowledge is _____ constructed
active
socially
zone of proximal development
LEARNING IS ONLY POSSIBLE WITH SUPPORT & SCAFFOLDING BY OTHERS W MORE EXPERIENCE*
skills too difficult for a child to master independently but can be done with guidance/encouragement from knowledgeable person
Vygotsky emphasized role of _______ & _______ in transmitting knowledge, studying the child in context
culture
society
mediated learning
adults provide novice learners with scaffolding
vygotsky & language
believed language to be the foundation for social interaction
piaget & language
believed language was byproduct of thoguht
piaget & endpoints
hypothetically everyone can reach endpoint – if provided with the right experience
vygotsky & endpoints
learning how to think - enabled by society
information processing theory
uses the model of a computer to describe how the brain works
- memory, perceiving info, retrieving memory & using all of this to solve problems
incremental
systems theory definition
belief that development can’t be explained by a single concept but rather through complex thinking
bronfenbrenner
ecological systems theory
- varied systems of the environment & the interrelationships among the systems shape a child’s development
- provides a detailed analysis of environmental influence & examines contexts for development
bronfenbrenner believe that both _____ & ______ influence the child’s development
environment
biology
bronfenbrenner says that the environment affects ________ & the _______ influences the environment
child;
child
proximal processes
reciprocal interactions between organism and environment
distal process
influences that modify proximal processes
microsystem
immediate home, environment, school. peers
mesosystem
interactions among components of the microsystem
exosystem
extended family, community society
macrosystem
broader culture, ideology, attitudes
chronosystem
time
biological theories
belief that heredity & innate biological processes govern growth
Hall & Gesell
MATURATIONISTS
- believed there is a predetermined biological time table
- hall & gesell were proponents of normative approach to child study
- age-related averages of child growth & behaviors to define what is normal
ethology
- examines how behavior is determined by a species need for survival
- has its roots in charles darwin’s research
- describes critical period for learning
Konrad Lorenz
ethologist – known for research on imprinting
duck follows momma
imprinting= survival technique
Bowlby
- applied ethological principles to his theory of attachment
- attachment between infant & caregiver can insure the infants survival
contemporary developmental theories acknowledge:
both quantitative & qualitative developmental changes
contemporary developmental theories have a broad scope, addressing _____ & _____ development
cognitive & social
contemporary developmental theories explain interacting causes for change both within the ______ & the _________
organism
environment
what is incorporated within the contemporary developmental theories:
interacting processes
reciprocal processes
bidirectional causal processes
