Lecture 3

Question 1

Racial profiling

Answer 1

a hierarchy of socially constructed skin colour and the positive and negative coding associations the police officer has with skin colour-> ideas and thoughts we attach to the body even through races don’t exist

Question 2

Processes of racialization:

Answer 2

making race-> looking into the day to day maintenance of races

Question 3

Scan-> interaction-> result

Answer 3

• Scan: person, vehicle, behaviour and time-place
   Person- Vehicle: Young man riding expensive care is suspicion
   Person-Place: Young man of ethnic minority in high economic status neighbourhood and thus doesn’t belong-> out of placeness
   Vehicle-place; expensive car in low status neighbourhood
   Behaviour-place; all normative ‘interruptions’, screaming, staring

Question 4

Judge J. Scheindlin

Answer 4

there is no basis for assuming that the racial distribution of stopped pedestrians will resemble the racial distribution of the local criminal population if the people stopped are not criminals

Question 5

Disproportionality:

Answer 5

compare police stops to categories-> residential benchmark: if the percentage is higher in proportion to the population-> than disproportionality-> theoretically can be but hardly the case

Question 6

Contradiction geo-policing

Answer 6

criticism on out of placeness-> demography as a justification-> only on ethnic minorities: in heterogeneity neighbourhoods whites aren’t stopped-> at play is construction of neighbourhoods which is unnecessary for solving crime-> used to limit mobility or get a grasp of the neighbourhood

Question 7

Passive representation

Answer 7

he bureaucracy has the same demographic origins, sex, race, income, class, religion, as the population it serves (mirroring)

Question 8

Active representation

Answer 8

assumes bureaucrats will act purposely on behalf of their counterparts in the general population

Question 9

Business-case policy

Answer 9

bridgebuilders

Question 10

Recommendations:

Answer 10

 Political-legal: measures in legislation, operational guidelines, strategic plans of action  Policy and management:

Registration and monitoring of proactive policing

Reducing ethnic disproportionality and strengthening the effectiveness of proactive action  Training and training

Evaluation and feedback

 Society: intensifying and improving the relationship between police and society in particular ethnic minorities

 Police force critical

Question 11

Controle alt delete

Answer 11

the overrepresentation of certain groups in statistics is not an objective justification for a stop

Question 12

Amnesty International

Answer 12

the state is committing a human rights abuse-> state is not respecting the laws that constrain state action

Question 13

Police doesn’t want more bureaucracy, thus monitoring stops

The risks of racial profiling:

Answer 13

(1) detaining, stopping and arresting innocent citizens (false positives) (2) ineffective use of police capacity (3) missing part of crime (4) undermining the legitimacy of the executive power in a democratic society (5) stigmatizing groups (6) alienating communities which can assist in reducing crime

Produce existing hierarchy in society-> have in focus how norm images work: good citizen-> hierarchy of somatic characteristics-> important that solutions are always new to resistance

Question 14

Harvey

Answer 14

space and time are constituted by and constituted of social relations and practices-> intersectionality of gender, class and race

Question 15

Spatial component:

Answer 15

before disciplined through surveillance techniques in time and space, now through isolating, disposing of, excluding, and banning potential ‘suspicious’ and ‘risky’ individuals

Question 16

Urban Allochthone

Answer 16

urban poor (ethicised and racialised minority groups, not-quite- white central and eastern Europeans and some parts of white working class, homeless people, beggars)

Question 17

Geopolicing

Answer 17

by intensifying surveillance in certain areas of the city and by focusing limited police resources on groups portrayed as risky, the aim is to both police milieus in the city that need safeguarding and others whose inhabitants have to be contained-> desire of police officers to withhold urban allochthones (possible deviants) from again possibly committing crimes-> wrongfulness in pre-crime phase that causes this desire

Question 18

How is mundane police work central to regulation of mobility in urban spaces

Answer 18

spatial practices reflect and produce social relations

Question 19

The logic of risk, prevention and security manifests itself in different institutions and spaces in modern society

Answer 19

governmentality: the deliberations, strategies, tactics and devices employed by authorities for making up and acting upon a population and its constituents to ensure good and avert ill-> from straightforward physical punishment to disciplinary techniques that regulate behaviour-> biopolitics: regulation of everyday life

Question 20

Shift in policing from punishment of crimes ‘punishment mentality’ to the containment of risks ‘risk mentality

Answer 20

‘risk society’ in which calculation, prediction, prevention and containment of security risks stand central-> feelings of insecurity, threat and risk

• Result of new public management where public sector needed to improve effectiveness and efficiency

From ‘late’ police officer to officer that is always there-> reactive to proactive policing-> police stops used in a preventive and repressive way-> repressive powers are proactively applied to prevent crime

Question 21

In the Netherlands the alterity is now the masculine migrant

Answer 21

Poor neighbourhoods are described as requiring state intervention-> working class groups are the cause of disorder, declining social cohesion and quality of life-> in Amsterdam these places with overlast, decay, danger and crime-> allochthones-> geo-policing: by intensifying surveillance in certain areas of the city and by focusing limited police resources on groups portrayed as risky, the aim is to both police milieus in the city that need safeguarding and others whose inhabitants have to be contained-> desire of police officers to withhold urban allochthones (possible deviants) from again possibly committing crimes-> wrongfulness in pre-crime phase that causes this desire

Question 22

Urban allochthone account for multitude of deviant ‘others’ and enough plasticity to be adapted to other empirical contexts and disciplinary fields

Answer 22

Geopolicing accommodates ideas of urban allochthones within a spatial governmentality, and entails the mapping, marking and production of racialised, gendered and classed urban landscapes-> space enables technology to ‘risk prevention’

Amsterdam: super-diverse (no majority of white and overlap rich and poor), relatively undivided city and normative idea of unified city is priority in Amsterdam-> how is the production of space conflated with race and class against the backdrop of increasing super-diversity, conviviality and limited ethnic segregation

Question 23

Three neighbourhoods no white majority, nineteen with less than half white-> disadvantaged neighbourhoods ethnically heterogenous and economically heterogenous whilst white homogenous neighbourhoods are economically homogenous (wealthy)-> reason for economically heterogeneity: gentrification (importance middle-class)

Answer 23

 For urban reconstruction: development, attention or base areas -> is neighbourhood good spatial scale? Development and attention significant variation in ethnicity and income at street level

Question 24

• Consequence of geo-policing

Answer 24

public space becomes increasingly inaccessible to identifiable groups of people-> they are seen as not belonging there-> paradox: goal of city is to create undivided city-> fuel spatial fragmentation, limit mobility, autonomy and agency of urban allochthones and create social distance between different categories

Question 25

• Racial profiling

Answer 25

any police-initiated action that relies on the race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than the behaviour of an individual or information that leads the police to a particular individual who has been identified as being, or having been, engaged in criminal activity-> relationship race and criminality: biasbased policing

Question 26

Theory of Representative bureaucracy

Answer 26

how the demographic characteristics of bureaucrats affect the distribution of outputs to clients who share these demographic characteristics-> two forms of representation: passive (bureaucracy same demographic origins) and active (how representation influences policy making and implementation-> bureaucrats act on behalf of their counterparts)
 First thought passive automatically in active but now know need for certain conditions: discretion to act on given policy and policy area needs to be salient to demographic group
 Minority bureaucrats implement policies or use discretion to reduce disparate treatment-> but for police force organisational socialisation hinders this

Question 27

Organisational socialisation

Answer 27

administrators are socialized by the organizations they work in and adopt behaviours and preferences that are consistent with organizational goals, thereby minimizing the influence of their own personal values on bureaucratic behaviour-> common set of assumptions and worldview-> loyalty above personal beliefs -> depersonalizes decision making-> may strip away ethical identity for organisational identity

Question 28

• Study on traffic stops in San Diego

Question 29

Study on traffic stops in San Diego

Answer 29

• Results: high levels of socialization, the percentage of black police officers in the division does not reduce the racial disparity in vehicle stops for that division-> as the presence of black police officers increases, so does the racial disparity in vehicle stops in that division
   The median income of a division is negatively related to racial disparity-> increases in poorer divisions
   Racial profiling increases in divisions where the population is predominantly white/Caucasian

Question 30

 How should we tackle racial profiling? Four steps (Control Alt Delete)

Answer 30

1. Police should acknowledge the problem
2. Develop a policy to counter the problem
3. Implement the policy
4. Monitor the implementation and effects of the policy and intervene if it doesn’t have the desired effect

• Police:

1. Has acknowledged the problem (took some time)
2. Group of police officers work on the force of difference and have developed some instruments, mainly aimed at making police officers conscious of implicit bias (training), ambassadors who start conversations, new guideline for proactive police stops (not jet suspected of criminal act, but for safety of the city) a person can by its looks of being part of a group that is overrepresented in criminal statistics -> have taken action to develop a policy
3. Policy not yet implemented, police officers not aware of new framework and also not in favour (over 2/3 think it’s okay to stop someone that is overrepresented in statistics)-> also no way of monitoring it
4. No way of monitoring the policy because police stops are not being registered unless the police officer decides to do that-> so know way of knowing if its effective

 Solution has to do with the third and fourth step: implement the policy, make police officers aware and that they implement them and monitor police activity in the street-> the policy should develop a way to monitor if racial profiling is taking place

Question 31

 Wicked problem:

Answer 31

• Root cause: police powers allow for stops without suspicion are driving ethic profiling
• Root cause: little accountability of police officers
• Lack of critical discussion
• Crime and migration discussions intertwined-> policies combined
• Growing populism, growing support right wing parties is feeding the securitization
• Power gap of the subjects of racial profiling (weaker political agency) and the majority white group • The solutions are not the right ones yet