Lecture 26

Question 1

Affect

Answer 1

As a noun, affect refers to feelings or emotions

Just as the primary symptom of schizophrenia is disordered thoughts, affeactive disorders (mood disorders) are charcterized by disordered feelings

Question 2

Mood (affective)disorder

Answer 2

Serious mood disorder

There are two principal types of mood disorders: bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder

Question 3

Mood Disorders

Answer 3

Affective disorders are prevalent and dangerous

A diagnosis of depression has a prevalence of approximately 7% in women and 3% in men.

Severely depressed people usually feel unworthy, hopeless, and have strong feelings of guilt
People with mood disorders have a very risk of self-harm and suicide

Question 4

Bipolar disorder

Answer 4

Serious mood disorder characterized by cyclical periods of mania and depression.
It affects ~1% of the population.
~80% of the risk is attributed to genetics.

Question 5

Major depressive disorder (MDD)

Answer 5

Serious mood disorder that consists of unremitting depression or periods of depression (that do not alternate with periods of mania).

~40% of the risk is attributed to genetics.

Question 6

Environmental factors for mood disorders

Answer 6

Environmental factors for mood disorders include traumatic/abusive childhood experiences.

Question 7

Mania

Answer 7

Episodes of mania are characterized by sense of euphoria that does not seem to be justified by circumstances
People with mania usually exhibit nonstop speech and motor activity

Diagnosis of mania is partly a matter of degree; one would not call exuberance and a zest for life pathological

Question 8

Lithium

Answer 8

Chemical element

Lithium salts (and anticonvulsants) are commonly prescribed for bipolar disorder

Lithium is most effective for treating the manic phase of bipolar disorder

Once mania is eliminated, depression usually does not follow

Therapeutic effect of lithium is very rapid. The mechanism of action is unknown.

High dose is needed so is not specific to a receptor

Question 9

Biological treatment for MDD

Answer 9

There are several established and experimental biological treatments for major depressive disorder (MDD)

Drugs that increase serotonin and/or norepinephrine signaling by inhibiting their enzymatic breakdown (e.g., monoamine oxidase inhibitors, MAOi) or by blocking their reuptake (e.g., tricyclics and serotonin specific reuptake inhibitors, SSRIs). 
Ketamine (NMDA glutamate receptor blocker) 
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
Deep brain stimulation
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
Vagus nerve stimulation
Bright-light therapy (phototherapy)
Sleep deprivation

Question 10

Tricyclic antidepressant

Answer 10

Inhibits reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine but also affects other neurotransmitters;
Named for the molecular structure

Question 11

Serotonin specific reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)

Answer 11

A class of drugs that specifically inhibit the reuptake of serotonin without affecting the reuptake of other neurotransmitters.
The most common one is Prozac (fluoxetine).
Similar drugs are Celexa, Paxil, Zoloft, etc…

Question 12

Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI)

Answer 12

Antidepressant drug that specifically inhibits reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin without affecting reuptake of other neurotransmitters.

Question 13

Monoamine Hypothesis of Depression

Answer 13

Based largely on the success tricyclic and SSRI treatments, the monoamine hypothesis of depression was developed. The idea is that depression is caused by insufficient monoamine receptor activity (the monoamines are serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine).

Because symptoms of depression are generally not relieved by potent dopamine receptor agonists such as amphetamine or cocaine, most investigators have focused their research efforts on the other two monoamines: norepinephrine and serotonin.

Tryptophan is the molecular precursor to serotonin. Giving people a low-tryptophan diet and then a tryptophan-free amino acid “cocktail” lowers brain tryptophan levels and consequently decreases their synthesis of serotonin (5-HT). This tryptophan/serotonin depletion procedure can elicit a depressive episode in people susceptible to depression.

Although SSRIs and SNRIs increase the levels of 5-HT and norepinephrine in the brain very rapidly, the drugs do not relieve symptoms of depression until they have been taken for several weeks

This suggests that something other than a simple increase in monoamine receptor activity is responsible for the normalization of mood

Question 14

Role of the Frontal Cortex

Answer 14

Functional Imaging Scans
Functional imaging scans have been done on many depressed patients, both before and after a variety of successful treatments.

There are few (if any) correlations. However, the argument has been made that one area of the anterior cingulate cortex (the subgenual region known as area 25) becomes less active after successful treatments.

Question 15

Deep brain stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation

Answer 15

Deep brain stimulation has been tried in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex as well as in the nucleus accumbens

Other promising approaches involve transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) directed to areas of the PFC or vagal nerve stimulation (VNS).

In a small study it worked. In larger ones it usually does not

Question 16

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

Answer 16

Used therapeutically to alleviate severe depression and bipolar disorder.

Seizures are electrically induced by applying brief electrical shocks to the head

In contrast to the delayed therapeutic effects seen with monoamine related treatments, the effects of other treatments (including ECT, lithium, DBS, VNS, and sleep deprivation) are more rapid. The seizures induced by ECT often reduce symptoms within days.

Dunno why it wors

Question 17

Role of sleep

Answer 17

One of the most prominent symptoms of depression is disordered sleep.

People with depression often have shallow, fragmented sleep. They tend to awaken frequently, especially toward morning.

In general, they spend more time in stage 1 sleep and less time in deep, slow-wave sleep (stages 3 and 4).

They also enter REM sleep soon after falling asleep, much earlier in the night in comparison to other people

Total Sleep Deprivation
One of most effective antidepressant treatments is total sleep deprivation.

Total sleep deprivation has immediate antidepressant effects in some people
Typically, depression is lifted by staying up overnight, but it returns after a normal night’s sleep

This suggests that a chemical builds up during waking hours that has some antidepressant effect, and it gets cleared away during sleep.

REM sleep deprivation also works, although more slowly, over the course of several weeks (similar to SSRIs).

Question 18

Anxiety disorder

Answer 18

A variety of psychological disorders characterized by unrealistic and unfounded fear and anxiety. Includes muscle tension, over activity of the autonomic nervous system, expectation of an impending disaster, and continuous vigilance for danger.

People often have more than one type of anxiety disorder.

Question 19

Generalized anxiety disorder

Answer 19

Disorder characterized by excessive anxiety and worry serious enough to cause disruption of their lives

Question 20

Social anxiety disorder

Answer 20

Disorder characterized by excessive fear of being exposed to the scrutiny of other people that leads to avoidance of social situations in which person is called on to perform

Question 21

Panic disorder

Answer 21

Disorder characterized by episodic periods of severe and unremitting terror. Includes symptoms such as shortness of breath, irregularities in heartbeat, and other autonomic symptoms, accompanied by intense fear

Question 22

Anticipatory anxiety

Answer 22

Fear of having a panic attack promotes anticipatory anxiety that sometimes leads to the development of agoraphobia

Question 23

Agoraphobia

Answer 23

Fear of being away from home or other protected places

Is a panic disorder

Question 24

Anxiety disorder prevalence

Answer 24

In a given year, about 12% of people are affected by an anxiety disorder.

It appears twice as often in females as males and generally begins before the age of 25.

12% of people will develop a specific phobia and 10% will develop social anxiety disorder at some point in their life.

Question 25

Anxiety disorder causes

Answer 25

The cause of anxiety disorders is a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

Environmental risk factors include a history of child abuse and poverty.

Anxiety disorders often occur with other mental disorders, particularly major depressive disorder, personality disorder, and substance use disorder.

Older people who have dementia often have problems with anxiety.

Question 26

Anxiety disorder brain activity

Answer 26

Functional brain imaging studies suggest that the amygdala and prefrontal cortex are involved in anxiety disorders

Adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder showed increased activation of the amygdala and decreased activation of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex while looking at angry faces

College students with a high level of anxiety showed increased activation of the amygdala, which positively correlates with students’ anxiety measures

Question 27

Anxiety Disorder treatments

Answer 27

Treatment options include lifestyle changes, behavioural therapy, and medications.

Lifestyle changes may include exercise, regularizing sleep patterns, and reducing caffeine intake and smoking.

Cognitive behavioral therapy(CBT) is often effective and is a first line treatment.

When medication is called for
Benzodiazepines are sometimes used, particularly in emergency settings because of their rapid onset
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are frequently used as a first line treatment for anxiety disorders

Question 28

Stress Disorders

Answer 28

Stress refers to the physiological reaction caused by the perception of aversive or threatening situations.

These physiological responses prepare people for fight or flight situations and include autonomic and endocrine responses that help to mobilize the body’s energy resources and support vigorous activity.

Stress-related autonomic and endocrine responses can cause adverse effects on health over time.

Question 29

Physiology of the Stress Response

Answer 29

Stress activates the sympathetic branch of autonomic nervous system
Stress also activates the adrenal glands to release hormones into the blood, including epinephrine, norepinephrine, and glucocorticoids such as cortisol.
The autonomic and hormone responses work together to increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood flow to muscles to make nutrients stored become available

Question 30

Glucocorticoids

Answer 30

A group of hormones (corticosteroids) that are important in protein and carbohydrate metabolism, secreted especially in times of stress

Question 31

Cortisol

Answer 31

A specific glucocorticoid (steroid hormone) secreted by adrenal cortex in response to stress

Question 32

Hormonal control of stress hormones

Answer 32

Secretion of glucocorticoids is controlled by the hypothalamus.

In response to stress, the hypothalamus starts a chain of events by releasing CRH/CRF (corticotropin-releasing hormone/factor).

CRH stimulates the pituitary to secrete ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone).

ACTH stimulates the adrenal gland to produce glucocorticoids.

Question 33

Stress

Glucocorticoids

Answer 33

Help to break down and convert proteins into glucose, make fats available for energy, increase blood flow, suppress secretion of sex hormones and stimulate behavioral responsiveness
Glucocorticoids have other physiological effects, too, some of which are not well understood. Almost every cell in the body contains glucocorticoid receptors, which means that few of them are unaffected by these hormones.

Question 34

Health Effects of Long-Term Stress

Answer 34

Short-term effects of glucocorticoids are essential for survival.

Long-term effects are damaging.  These effects include 
increased blood pressure
damage to muscle tissue
steroid diabetes
infertility
inhibition of growth
inhibition of the inflammatory responses
suppression of the immune system

Stress slows the healing of (flesh) wounds and predisposes people to infections.

During three-to-five-day period just before showing symptoms of upper respiratory infection, people experienced an increased number of undesirable, stressful events.

Question 35

Effects of Stress on the Brain

Answer 35

Monkeys near bottom of their social hierarchy are almost continuously stressed.

These monkeys seem to die more often than others from stress-related issues.

Examinations post-mortem found them to have signs of chronic stress, such as gastric ulcers, enlarged adrenal glands, and damaged hippocampi.

Episodes of emotional maltreatment during childhood has been associated with an average 7.2 percent reduction in volume of dorsomedial prefrontal cortex

Question 36

PTSD

Answer 36

Most people who have experienced a traumatic event will not develop PTSD.

The likelihood of developing PTSD increases with the number of traumatic events the person has experienced

Approximately 30% of the variance in PTSD is caused from genetics alone.

The main treatments for people with PTSD are cognitive behavioural therapy, group therapy, and medication. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the first-line medications and result in benefit in about half of people.

Some evidence suggests that PTSD is associated with abnormalities in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which coordinates hormonal response to stress.

Several studies found evidence that increased activity in the amygdala is responsible for emotional reactions in people with PTSD

Functional imaging studies have found that when shown pictures of faces with fearful expressions, people with PTSD show greater activation of amygdala and smaller activation of prefrontal cortex than did people without PTSD