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Scientific and Statistical Reasoning 3 > Lecture 23: Critical thinking about Individual differences & mechanisms > Flashcards

Lecture 23: Critical thinking about Individual differences & mechanisms Flashcards

1
Q

There are differences in the way that experts and beginners look at positions of pieces on a chess board (as measured by using eye trackers). Those differences could be used explain differences in chess performance: so what makes somebody an expert at playing chess.

wat is dit?

A

MECHANISMS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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2
Q

Which of the following is a good example of local independence?

A

working memory predicts numeracy, but not when looking at people who are all equally intelligent

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3
Q

nooit een measure van …. gebruiken om gedrag uit te leggen

A

Interindividual differences

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4
Q

Simpsons paradox:

A

er is een positieve trend voor elk van de afzonderlijke groepen, maar er verschijnt een negatieve trend als de data worden gecombineerd.

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5
Q

hoe interpreteer je de mediation analysis

A

onder direct effects zie je wat de IV -> DV is als je corrigeert voor de mediator. ditzelfde zie je onder path coefficients bij IV -> DV

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6
Q

wat is de effect size

A

de b coefficient! onder estimate

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7
Q
  • Psychology is the most important and most difficult
    science
  • As a science still in an initial stage
  • Many questions can still not be answered
  • But enormous market (therapy, selection, education,
    marketing, training, etc.)
  • How to act on this?
A
  • Determine your values (what should be studied)
  • Set your norms (when is a question sufficiently answered)
  • Knowledge of methods and discussions on methods essential
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8
Q

wat zijn 2 vragen die je kan stellen over behaviour X

A
  1. how does X work
  2. why do people differ in X
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9
Q

how does X work =….

A

Ad 1) Intra (within) individual differences: mechanism (process models)

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10
Q

why do people differ in X =

A

Ad 2) Inter (between) individual differences, correlates and causes

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11
Q

dus wat is correlaties

A

= inter individual differences

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12
Q

en wat is process models

A

= intra individual differences

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13
Q

What happens in
the mind of a chess
player =

A

mechanism

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14
Q

chess test =

A

inter

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15
Q

chess computers

  • Artificial intelligence
  • Alphazero chess
A

mechanism

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16
Q

talent discussion

A

inter individual differences

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17
Q

psychological AI (crest, act-r)

A

mechanism

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18
Q

ericssons 10000 hour rule, deliberate practice, talent is overrated

A

inter individual differences

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19
Q

recall experiments=

A

mechanism

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20
Q

eye movement studies =

A

mechanism

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21
Q

sex differences =

A

intra individual differences

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22
Q

Anova’s, regression models, t-tests

horen bij…

A

mechanism

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23
Q

Correlations, factor models

horen bij….

A

interindividual differences

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24
Q

experimental designs =

A

cognition/mechanism

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25
Q

Average person: persons are replications=

A

cognition/mechanism

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26
Q

focus on individual=

A

interindividual differences

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27
Q

correlational design=

A

interindividual differences

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28
Q

Individual differences are nuisance
hoort bij..

A

mechanisms / cognition

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29
Q

What is the fundamental difference between ‘intelligence’ and ‘cogni:on’?

A

individual differences vs mechanisms

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30
Q

wat gaat er vaak mis bij diagnostics

A

Intra individual methods and instruments are too
unreliable to be used at the individual level (diagnostics)

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31
Q

Inter individual results can not generalized to the individual level: 3 voorbeelden

A
  1. heritability
  2. the big 5, IQ
  3. simpsons paradox
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32
Q

welke soorten psychologie horen bij interindividuals, en welke bij intra?

A

intra = social and cognitive
inter = differential psychology

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33
Q

wat is een voorbeeld van: bikes

A

We know exactly how bikes are build and how they work. But this does not mean that we know the sources of differences in speed of bikes in Amsterdam.
(= intra individual model is not informative on individual differences)

en tegelijkertijd: knowing the main source of differences in performance of bikes in Amsterdam (hard tubes, for instance) does not mean that tubes are the most essential part of bikes

(= models of individual differences are not informative on mechanisms!)

34
Q

Perfect model of chess playing ‘works’ in your head does not explain or predict who is world champion

A

oke

35
Q

Why are tests developed in experimental psychology often not useful in psychodiagnostics?

A

low re-test reliability!

36
Q

hoe leg je deze low re-test reliability uit

A

bijvoorbeeld meten van creativity met alterative uses test: hele lage re-test reliability. nog steeds handig in experimenten, omdat we hier de noise uit cancellen.
maar bij bv bij job selection (intraindividual differences) hebben we een hoge retest reliability nodig!!!

37
Q

Too often instruments developed for experimental studies with very low reliability are
used in inter individual research (psychodiagnostics, job selection)

A

oke

38
Q

heritability=

A

h2 is how much of the varia:on seen in a certain trait within a population can be attributed to genetic variation, as opposed the to environment

39
Q

waar gaat h^2 over?

A

inter individual differences

40
Q

waar zegt h^2 dus wel wat over, en waar zegt het niks over?

A

het zegt iets over verschillen tussen mensen: bij sommige mensen meer invloed genetics, en bij sommigen meer invloed environment. maar het zegt dus niks over mechanisms!!!!

41
Q

hoe interpreteer je een h^2 van 1 dan

A

dat de individuele verschillen tussen mensen alleen worden verklaard door de genen. alleen dat als we allemaal in dezelfde environment zouden opgroeien, dan is h^2 = 1

maaar….. dus NIET dat de omgeving geen rol speelt in het ontwikkelen van deze eigenschap!!!!!!!!!!

42
Q

hoe interpreteer je h^2 = 0 dan

A

But a h2 of 0 does not mean that genes have no role! -> Having lungs has a h2 of 0

43
Q

What happens with the heritability coefficient, h2, if all children grow up in perfect conditions?

A

= 1

44
Q

wat gaat er vaak mis bij de interpretatie van de big 5

A

big five is een model van interindividual differences , maar wordt vaak gezien als een intra-individual model (“ik doe dit omdat ik extravert ben”)

45
Q

wat is dus het verschil tussen de big 5 en persoonlijkheid

A

personality = within/intra
big five = between/inter

46
Q

wat gebeurt er als je de big 5 op een intra individual manier meet

A

dan zie je meestal maar een big one, of big three

47
Q

wat is het standaardmodel van individual differences in psychology

A

latent variable model: manifest variables (X) are explained by hidden variables (theta)

zie schrift!!!!

48
Q

voorbeelden van manifest variables

A
  • Scores on cognitive tests
  • Depression symptoms
  • Indicators of attitudes
49
Q

voorbeelden van hidden variables

A
  • General intelligence
  • Depression
  • Attitude
50
Q

positive manifold=

A

= matrix van positive correlations tussen scores van allerlei cognitieve testen. dus mensen die goed op een scoren zullen wss ook goed op de anderen scoren.

heel robust!

51
Q

hoe leg je de positive manifold uit op de spearman manier

A

g-factor: mental power.

Inter individual differences in scores on IQ sub tests are explained by differences in ‘mental power’ -> g causes test scores

52
Q

waarom was het statistical criticism op g rejected

A

omdat factor analysis opzich gewoon een goede methode is.

53
Q

waarom was “depends on sub-test choice” gerejected

A

omdat een test wel met zichzelf moet correleren, anders ga je sws geen correlaties vinden met andere dingen vinden.

54
Q

maar wat is het grootste probleem van g

A

dat het niet gebaseerd is op een theorie, geen mechanism, geen theorie over hoe het ontwikkelt, geen theorie over waar het dan precies zit in het brein en wat het precies is.

55
Q

hoe kan je het vergelijken met nederlandse lakes

A
  • Suppose we have to compare Dutch lakes in how well
    they do
  • We measure: Fish quantity and diversity, insects, water quality, oxygen, plant live, etc.
  • We probably find a positive manifold: ‘good’ lakes
    score better on all these measures than ‘bad’ lakes
  • Factor analysis gives us one factor: eco g?
  • Eco g explains why some lakes do well and others not
  • Biologists: NO ! -> het is een ecosysteem, met mutualism. deze dingen relaten allemaal aan elkaar.
56
Q

dus hoe kan je het cognitieve systeem uitleggen dmv mutualism

A

alle verschillende aspecten van cognition hebben een positieve invloed op elkaar -> reciprocal interactions. the correlations are real, increased working memory leads to higher artithmetic etc. het is een complex dynamical system, met reciprocal effects.

je cannot explain away these interactions. hiermee wordt het positive manifold dus goed uitgelegd. you have to understand the networks, not explain them away!!!

57
Q

wat is een alternatief voor het factor analysis model

A

formative AEX, zie schrift

58
Q

dus hoe kan je depressie op 2 manieren uitleggen

A
  1. latent variable model: je hebt depressie (hidden variable), waardoor je symptomen krijgt
  2. formative AEX: je hebt symptomen (slecht voelen, slecht slapen, waardeloos), die samen leiden tot een soort samenhangend beeld wat wij depressie noemen
59
Q

dus wat is general intelligence volgens het formative AEX model

A

een index!

60
Q

wat is de simpsons paradox

A

correlation within and between persons can be very different!

= er is een positieve trend voor elk van de afzonderlijke groepen, maar er verschijnt een negatieve trend voor de gehele groep

61
Q

wat is een voorbeeld van de simpsons paradox

A

typing: correlatie tussen speed en accuracy

62
Q

voorbeeld van typing: simpsons paradox hoe?

A

between persons (grote groep): good typists are faster and more accurate than bad typists.

within persons (per persoon): when a single individual speeds up, they make more errors

63
Q

wat is het selection example van Berkley

A

women are less admitted to berkeley.

klopt niet -> women choose more selective departments (geneeskunde vaker kiezen dan economics). als je kijkt per afdeling worden ze juist soms vaker gekozen.

64
Q

wat is het voorbeeld van NWO

A

vrouwen krijgen minder onderzoeksbeurzen dan mannen: niet directe discriminatie tegen vrouwen, maar indirectly, want NWO discriminates the disciplines that women prefer (behavioural sciences vs. physics)

65
Q

wat is de heritability of group differences in intelligence: denkfouten die mensen maken

A
  • individual differences in IQ scores are heritable
  • there are group differences in IQ scores (robust)

hierdoor zeggen mensen: group differences worden veroorzaakt door genetics. maar dit is fout

66
Q

waarom worden die groep differences niet genetisch bepaald

A
  • Not a ‘logical’ conclusion (Simpson paradox)
  • No pathway (but environmental pathways is evidently there)
  • No evidence, weak theory (g)
  • Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence
67
Q

Strategy to deal with ‘racist’ IQ researchers

A
  1. Ignore? I tried, failed
  2. Reply? Problem: lack of consensus among criLcs
  3. De-platform/cancel? Seems to reinforce their popularity (Charles Murray)
68
Q

why are there differences in intelligence, autism etc? is eigenlijk een violation van…

A

the “Fundamental theorem of natural selection” (Fisher, 1930):
Evolution should eliminate genetic variation in all traits,
including all aspects of personality. So how can personality differences still be heritable (i.e., genetically variable) after all these generations of evolution?

69
Q

wat is het verschil tussen behavioural genetics en evolutionary psychology

A

behavioural genetics = individual differences
evolutionary psychology = mechanisms (why do people have a fear of snakes?)

brug: evolutionary genetics

70
Q

3 redenen voor individual differences (evolution)

A
  1. selective neutrality
  2. mutation selection balance
  3. balancing selection
71
Q

selective neutrality=

A

there is no selection pressure on these things.
intelligence might not really matter on our fitness, on the number of children we get. therefore there is no selection pressure.

72
Q

waarom is selective neutrality niet probable

A

we hebben gezien dat als er ook maar een klein selectief advantage is over een trait, dat er dan nog steeds selection is. dus dit is niet waarschijnlijk omdat er dan voor zoveel dingen helemaal geen verschil zou zitten (terwijl er overal wel een verschil is).

73
Q

mutation selection balance =

A

a large part of your genes lead to a certain trait/behaviour, dus niet makkelijk voor selection om deze effecten er uit te halen, omdat het zo veel genen zijn

74
Q

wat zou de mutation selection balance uitleggen

A
  • intelligence
  • autism
  • schizophrenia
  • health in general
75
Q

balancing selection =

A

diversity is a good thing! therefore we do not compete for the same resources, and als groep zijn we dan sterker

  • overdominance
  • antagonistic pleiotropy
  • environmental heterogeneity
  • frequency-dependent selection (cheaters)
76
Q

wat legt de balancing selection theorie uit

A

personality (extraversion is soms handig, soms niet)

(cheaters)

77
Q

Why aren’t we all super brilliant and super nice?

A
  1. super brilliant: te veel genen, lastig om door evolutie weg te halen
  2. super nice: diversity is efficient
78
Q
  • Creativity tests not useful at the individual level
  • g might not exist
  • Heritability coefficient h2 is a tricky thing (depends on
    environment)
  • Be aware of Simpson’s paradox (typing example)
A

oke

79
Q

Evolu:onary gene:cs hypothesis: 2 dingen

A
  • Intelligence <- mutation selection balance
  • Personality <- balancing selection
80
Q
A

Scientific and Statistical Reasoning 3 (10 decks)

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