Lecture 2: Research Logic and Research Design

Question 1

Normative research

Answer 1

• questions that inquire what ought to be
• deals with ethics, values, and value judgements (aim = prescriptive)
• require the application of philosophy rather than of data

Question 2

Positive research

Answer 2

• questions that inquire what is
• deals with empirical phenomena and theoretical concepts plus the link between them
• capable of being researched through data collection

Question 3

Theoretical research

Answer 3

• theory elaboration, conceptualizations
• analytical (truth = based on logical deductive reasoning)

Question 4

Empirical research

Answer 4

• theory generation, testing and application, conceptualization
• synthetic (truth result from a confrontation between theory and empirical content)

Question 5

Descriptive research

Answer 5

• collection of facts that can be used as evidence
• good descriptive research can lead to a ‘light bulb’ moment

Question 6

Explanatory research

Answer 6

• can focus on causes of events, causal effects or causal mechanisms
• why-questions: causal effects
• how-questions: causal mechanisms

Question 7

What is research design?

Answer 7

• logical plan
• ‘how are you going to conduct the research?’
• method needs to be consistent and logical, not logistical

Question 8

Units of variation

Answer 8

= units of analysis (count of N / number of cases)

Question 9

Case study

Answer 9

empirical analysis of a small sample of cases

Question 10

X-centered

Answer 10

Focuses on a cause

• has it a specific effect on a given outcome
• gauging the contribution of X in explaining part of the variation in Y

Question 11

Y-centered

Answer 11

Focuses on the outcome

• discern the relevant causes
• explaining the variation in Y as best as you can (backward looking)

Question 12

Mechanism-centered

Answer 12

Focuses on tracing a causal mechanism/causal process

• uncovering the sequence of intervening factors that link an X to an Y

Question 13

What is a case?

Answer 13

Bounded empirical phenomenon that is an instance of a population of similar empirical phenomena

• boundaries: spatial / temporal / substantive
• causal homogeneity: causal effects and mechanisms are expected to hold true for other cases in the population

Question 14

Population

Answer 14

universe of cases, studied and unstudied

Question 15

Sample

Answer 15

Studied cases

Question 16

Analytical level

Answer 16

• macro level
• meso level
• micro level

Question 17

Macro level

Answer 17

Societies, economies, states

Question 18

Meso level

Answer 18

Groups, territorial subunits

Question 19

Micro level

Answer 19

Individuals

Question 20

Level of analysis

Answer 20

• cross-case level
• within-case level

Question 21

Cross-case level

Answer 21

Causal effects

Question 22

Within-case level

Answer 22

Causal mechanisms

Question 23

Types of observations

Answer 23

• data set observations
• causal process observations

Question 24

Causation

Answer 24

A type of co-variation where one phenomenon contributes to or produces another

Question 25

Criteria for causal inference

Answer 25

• temporal sequence ( X –> Y)
• proximity (in time and space)
• constant coexistence (of X and Y)
• necessary connection (between X and Y)

Question 26

Views towards causation

Answer 26

• probabilistic view
• deterministic view

Question 27

Probabilistic view on causation

Answer 27

• when the values of an independent variable increase or decrease, this usually results in the values of the dependent variable increasing or decreasing
• cause as a probability raiser

= X sometimes effects Y

Question 28

Deterministic view on causation

Answer 28

• when the values of an independent variable increase or decrease, this always results in the values of the dependent variable increasing or decreasing
• explanatory factors are (potentially) necessary and/or sufficient conditions for an outcome

= X always effects Y

Question 29

Predictive research

Answer 29

Predictions about the future through identifying future patterns. Oriented towards elections. Not focused on in the course.

Question 30

What is research design?

Answer 30

A logical plan for getting from the research question to the answer.
Not just about how you do the research, but also why and what the purpose of doing this is.
Answers the question of how are you going to conduct the research

Question 31

Choosing a research design

Answer 31

Make decisions based on the theory out there

In explanatory research, you have to think about the variation you want to explain

The level of analysis

The type of data you have to collect to answer your research question

If there’s a probabilistic or deterministic causational perspective

Think about the choice of methods

Question 32

Theory testing

Answer 32

1. Start with describing/analysing the theory.
2. Hypotheses/propositions
3. Measurement/sampling etc.
4. Data collection
5. Data analysis
6. Either the data analysis makes it so there’s implications for the hypothesis, so you confirm/reject the theory. When you reject the theory, a new theory is needed.
   Deductive (when theory testing and theory building, abductive)

Question 33

Theory building

Answer 33

When there is not much or no theory to build on.
1. Start with data collection
2. Data analysis
3. Implications for hypothesis or new theory
4. When implications for hypothesis, it results in a theory
5. When new theory is needed, a new hypothesis is needed and then you go through the process of measurement, data collection, data analysis and implications for hypothesis again and making a hypothesis in the end.
Inductive (when theory testing and theory building, abductive)

Question 34

Type of research design

Answer 34

Single case, short time and short space (one case in time)

Comparative case study (different case studies at a specific time point)

Periodisation study (one case across different points in time)

Question 35

Necessary condition in deterministic perspective towards causation

Answer 35

Something which must be present for something else to be possible.