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Biological Psychology > Lecture 2: Communication & Endocrine System > Flashcards

Lecture 2: Communication & Endocrine System Flashcards

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1
Q

neurons

A

eukaryote cells (contrain a clearly defined nucleus) that communicate with each other using electrochemical signals

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2
Q

cell membrane

A

consists of 2 lipids (fat molecules) and phosphor heads
- separates the internal components of the cell from the immediate external environment of the cell

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3
Q

phospholipid layers

A

contain protein channels (e.g. ion channels, recognition molecules, or receptors) that allow certain molecules to pass from inside the cell (intracellular) to the outside of the cell (extracellular), or vice versa

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4
Q

ligand

A

binds to a receptor allowing an action to be formed, like an ion gate

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5
Q

neuron structure

A

consists of 3 components: the soma (cell body), axon, and dendrites

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6
Q

soma

A

contains the nucleus and mitochondria

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7
Q

atom

A

contains a nucleus that contains neutrons, protons, and electrons
- neutrons: neutral (either negative or positive)
- protrons: positively charged particles
- electrons: negatively charged particles

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8
Q

ion

A

when an atom is negatively or positively charged

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9
Q

ionotropic receptors

A

proteins in the cell membrane
- influences the flow of ions, to allow for depolarization and repolarization

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10
Q

depolarization

A

ionotropic receptors allow more positive ions into the cell, making the cell charge more positive

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11
Q

repolarization

A

the process of which a neuron restores its negative internal charge after being depolarized

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12
Q

metabotropic receptors

A

have a binding site for neurotransmitters, but no pore of their own through which ions can flow
- activate G proteins

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13
Q

G proteins

A

direct the signal to an enzyme that adjusts the activity of an ion channel
- bind to guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and guanosine triphosphate (GTP)

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14
Q

3 ways cells can be connected

A
  • desmosome
  • tight junction
  • gap junction
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15
Q

desmosome

A

a structure in the cell membrane that allows cells to attach to each other, such as skin tissue

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16
Q

tight junction

A

in this case, the cells are seated against each other. at this junction, no passive substance can cross the membrane, like in the intestines

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17
Q

gap junction

A

small channels that run between cells to promote transport, as in the heart

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18
Q

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A

a network of membranes located in the cytoplasm
- consists of 2 membranes close to each other, between which cavities and channels are formed
- main function: to collect proteins to be sent to the golgi apparatus

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19
Q

rough ER

A

ribosomes attach to the rough ER

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20
Q

smooth ER

A

no ribosomes are attached but calcium is stored

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21
Q

golgi apparatus

A

the function of the golgi apparatus is to convert and store proteins, which are then transported to other destinations

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22
Q

mitochondria

A

produce energy that the cell needs, which they develop by generating large amounts of energy within the molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

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23
Q

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A

energy-displacing molecules that store chemical energy (obtained from breaking down food molecules), which can then be used for such things as moving molecules

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24
Q

lysosomes

A

structures in the cytoplasm containing enzymes that can break down waste molecules in the cell

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25
Q

cytoskeleton

A

consists of microfilaments that provide movement, intermediate filaments, which provide the strength of a cell, and microtubules, through which substances are transported

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26
Q

radial glial cells

A

precursor cells that show the way to migrating nerve cells during central nervous system development and indicate the direction in which axons should grow

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27
Q

astrocyte

A

a star-shaped, branched glial cell in the CNS with long or short spurs
- support cells in the nerve pathway that lie between a blood vessel and a neuron
- remove some neurotransmitters, regulate ion concentration, and play a role in the development of the CNS by forming conductive branches through which neurons can grow
- can maintain neuronal homeostasis
- part of the blood-brain barrier
- involved in repair of the nervous system

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28
Q

microglia

A

small glial cells that occur in the mesoderm and are very important during injury
- active in monitoring their immediate environment for injury
- release inflammatory agents and help clear away dead material

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29
Q

ependymal cells

A

produce and secrete CSF
- form the epithelial layer of the fluid-filled cerebral ventricles
- have hair-like structures called cilia
- influence the direction of CSF flow

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30
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

cells positioned in the CNS and provide myelination to axons
- can lie around several axons

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31
Q

schwann cells

A

located in the peripheral nervous system and also myelinate sensory and motor neurons
- only lie around one axon
- repair myelin when damaged

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32
Q

myelin sheath

A

reduces the loss of electrical current to the extracellular fluid

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33
Q

white matter

A

refers to areas with many myelinated neurons

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34
Q

gray matter

A

consists of cell bodies and dendrites where there is no myelin

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35
Q

nodes of ranvier

A

allow neural flow to move along the axon much faster

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36
Q

multiple sclerosis

A

an autoimmune inflammatory neurological disease
- symptoms: “FATIGUE”
- Fatigue
- Altered vision
- Tinglish/numbness
- Incoordination
- Gait problems
- Urinary issues
- Extreme temperature sensitivity

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37
Q

multipolar neurons

A

contain many dendrites

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38
Q

bipolar neurons

A

have a single dendrite and a single axon

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39
Q

unipolar neurons

A

have a single axon and a dendrite that grows into an axon-like structure

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40
Q

afferent

A

when neural information runs into the central nervous system

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41
Q

efferent

A

when neural information leaves the CNS

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42
Q

motor neurons

A

send information from the brain to the muscles
- efferent

43
Q

sensory neurons

A

send sensory information to the brain
- afferent

44
Q

a potential

A

the difference between the positively and negatively charged area

45
Q

cations

A

positively charged ions

46
Q

anions

A

negatively charged ions

47
Q

diffusion

A

the process by which ions move from a site of high concentration of the same ions to a site of low concentration through the random movement of the particles

48
Q

concentration gradient

A

differences in concentration close to the cell membrane
- allows diffusion to occur

49
Q

resting potential

A

the electrical charge in the cell membrane when there is no stimulation

50
Q

action potential

A

is created when the potential difference exceeds the firing threshold (-50 mV)

51
Q

depolarization

A

Na+ gates, which are closed at rest, open, allowing Na+ to flow into the cell and create a positive intracellular charge (+30 mV)

52
Q

repolarization

A

K+ gates open, but are much slower and only open when the Na+ channels are deactivated
- K+ now flows out of the cell, causing the intracellular charge to become negative again to the resting potential (-70 mV)

53
Q

hyperpolarization

A

eventually the K+ channels close, but because they are slow, they only close when the charge becomes more negative than -70 mV

54
Q

absolute refractory period

A

period when the cell cannot fire at all
- during the repolarization and depolarization period

55
Q

relative refractory period

A

the cell can fire, but it is more difficult because of the hyperpolarization of the membrane

56
Q

saltatory conduction

A

an action potential can jump from node to node via the nodes of Ranvier

57
Q

pulmonary conduction

A

occurs with unmyelinated axons activating adjacent gates

58
Q

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

A

associated with the opening of Na+ channels, allowing sodium ions to enter
- increases the likelihood of an action potential

59
Q

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

A

associated with the opening of K+ channels, allowing potassium ions to exit
- reduces the likelihood of an action potential

60
Q

temporal summation

A

the summation of potentials that come shortly after each other

61
Q

spatial summation

A

the summation of potentials that are close in location

62
Q

synapse

A

consists of a presynaptic membrane, a synaptic gap, and a postsynaptic membrane

63
Q

microtubules

A

provide material for making neurotransmitters

64
Q

presynaptic terminal

A

axonal mitochondria provide energy to convert precursors into neurotransmitters

65
Q

vesicles

A

package neurotransmitters before they are transported to the synapse

66
Q

heteroreceptors

A

receive input from other neurons that use other neurotransmitters as messengers

67
Q

exocytosis

A

when vesicles release the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

68
Q

full fusion

A

a type of exocytosis
- the membrane of the vesicle fuses with the cell and the contents of the vesicles enter the synaptic cleft (requires calcium)

69
Q

kiss-and-run fusion

A

a type of exocytosis
- the vesicle releases a transmitter through a pore in the cell membrane
- there is no full integration, so part of the neurotransmitter remains in the vesicle
- myosin determines how long the vesicle is open

70
Q

autoreceptors

A

help regulate the synaptic environment by providing feedback to the presynaptic neuron

71
Q

endocytosis

A

the process for the absorption of neurotransmitters

72
Q

three forms of endocytosis

A
  • pinocytosis: small particles, namely liquids, are brought in the cell via invagination
  • phagocytosis: solids are internalized into the cell
  • receptor-mediated endocytosis: the ingestion of a specific molecule by the cell
73
Q

requirements for a chemical to be called a neurotransmitter

A
  • must be a mechanism that can retrieve the chemical from the action area (reuptake)
  • the chemical must be released and cause a functional change in another cell
  • the chemical must be synthesized or present in the neuron
  • the same reaction should only occur when the chemical is placed directly on another cell in experiments
74
Q

acetylcholine (ACh)

A

a small neurotransmitter that gets its components from food
- plays an important role in signalling to the muscles

75
Q

neuropeptides

A

such as endorphins and enkephalins

76
Q

soluble gases

A

can also be neurotransmitters, such as carbon monoxide and nitric oxide

77
Q

dendro-dendritic synapses

A

dendrites send messages to each other

78
Q

axo-somatic synapses

A

the presynaptic terminal synapse communicates with a cell body of another neuron

79
Q

axo-dendritic synapses

A

the axon synapses on the postsynaptic dendrites of another neuron

80
Q

axo-synaptic synapses

A

the presynaptic terminal of an axon synapse with a presynaptic terminal of another neuron

81
Q

axo-axonal synapses

A

the presynaptic terminal synapse communicates with an axon of another neuron

82
Q

retrograde signalling

A

synaptic communication is reversed

83
Q

gap junction

A

the gap between the pre- and postsynaptic membrane is very small
- communication in a gap junction is similar to that of an action potential
- faster than that of a chemical synapse

84
Q

hormones

A

chemical substances that are produced in specialized glands or cells
- can be lipids, peptides, or monoamines

85
Q

adrenal medulla

A

is the “inside” and secretes amine hormones
- epinephrine and norepinephrine are produced in the medulla in response to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system

86
Q

adrenal cortex

A

the “outside” and produces steroids, with cortisol as the most important substance

87
Q

pineal gland

A

produces melatonin whose levels decrease and increase throughout the day

88
Q

hypothalamus

A

synthesizes and releases corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) through the paraventricular neucles (PVN)
- gonadotropin-releasing hormone is made in the anterior hypothalamus and controls the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

89
Q

pituitary gland

A

closely linked with the hypothalamus
- divided into anterior and posterior
- thyrotrophin-releasing hormone comes from the PVN, stimulating the anterior pituitary, releasing thyroid-stimulating hormone

90
Q

anterior pituitary

A

secretes the hormones FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH, prolactin (PRL) and GH (growth hormone)

91
Q

posterior pituitary

A

secretes oxytocin and vasopressin/ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

92
Q

thyroid

A

releases thyroid hormones
- main function is to regulate metabolism and support brain and nervous system development

93
Q

hypothyroidism

A

caused by an inadequate amount of iodine
- leads to slowed metabolism

94
Q

pancreas

A

an important gland in feeding and drinking because it secretes glucagon and insulin

95
Q

gonads

A

estradiol, testosterone, and progesterone are the main steroid hormones of the ovaries and testes

96
Q

monoamines

A

derived from a single amino acid, such as dopamine and adrenaline

97
Q

peptides and proteins

A

multiple amino acids linked together
- majority of hormones are peptide hormones

98
Q

steroids

A

fats made in the adrenal cortex and gonads, such as cortisol and testosterone

99
Q

catecholamines

A

monoamines derived from tyrosine

100
Q

cytokines

A

involved in the communication of immune cells

101
Q

local growth factors

A

released for cell division and differentiation in the case of injuries

102
Q

nitric oxide (NO)

A

causes local relaxation of muscles in order to dilate blood vessels and thus increase oxygen transport in case of an oxygen shortage

103
Q

prostaglandins

A

fatty substances made up of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, involved in the concentration of the uterus during childbirth and in immune reactions such as fever and inflammation

Biological Psychology (12 decks)

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