Lecture 2 Flashcards
Is culture unique to humans?
no -> if we define culture as information acquired through social learning
other species show cultural learning: monkeys, dolphines, killer whales, pigeons, bird species (calling strategies), octopus
What is characteristic of cultural learning in humans?
it is faster (even upon single exposure) and imitation targeted
prestige bias = when we learn cultural skills, we pick the best available example to learn from
What are differences between chimp and child learning?
learning how to operate puzzle box to obtain a treat
all imitate the researcher’s behavior
however, when second box is introduced -> see-through -> shows that not all researcher’s steps are necessary to obtain reward
chimps skip unnecessary steps to obtain reward
children are predisposed to copy all experimenter’s steps
imitative learning
type of learning prominent in humans
full imitation
it is less effective, but more precise -> social learning -> internalizing mental states of the prototype
emulative learning
type of learning prominent in chimps
main focus on the outcome
more effective, less precise
accumulation of information is not as good as in the case of imitative learning (due to lower precision)
similarity bias
chosing imitation model based on how similar they are to us
conformist transmission
tendency to learn from people who are engaging in behaviors that are more common
following the majority
Why humans are better at accumulation of cultural information?
1) theory of mind
2) language -> no other species have grammar/syntax
3) sharing experiences and goals -> collaborative learning
innovation
modification and improvement of transmitted cultural information
cultural ideas need to constantly develop
ratchet effect
constant improvement of ideas, progress
cultural information can continue to build without losing earlier information
What faciliates cultural learning in humans?
1) bigger brain - 16% of metabolism is spent on brain functioning
2) high encephalization quotient - brain to body ratio
encephalization quotient
ratio of human brain to the body (relative brain size) - largest in humans (except for shrew! ryjówka)
What are implications for the body of developing bigger brain?
smaller/weaker muscles compared to other species
shorter intestines compared to other species (less energy spend on digesting food => more energy spend on the brain)
gene-culture coevolution
example how culture → cooking → contributed to gene evolution (shorter intestines)
What are evolutionary advantages of bigger brain?
better functioning in groups (better at creating and navigating social hierarchies)
social brain hypothesis → neocortex ration: neocortex is larger compared to sub-cortical parts = most social processes happen at neocortex
Where does culture come from?
- Jared Diamond - focused on ecology in creating culture
cultural norms as adaptive responses to features of ecology (geography + climate)
What would effect of unpredicatble environment with many threats be on culture?
spontaneity and strong short lived motivations
What would be effect of dependence on food sources obtained through bravery on culture?
masculine culture
what are causes of cultures? how do they differ?
there are proximal and distal causes
proximal causes = differences that have direct and immediate effect
distal causes = differences that have effect over longer period of time through indirect processes
what is example of proximal cause?
no hunting tradition in Hawaii bc there are no large mammals there
what are examples of distal causes?
stronger immune system as a result of domesticating animals and sedentary lifestle
cultural variation in geneder roles - the harsher environments, the more masculinity is valued
What are two ways of explaining cultural variation?
evoked culture = all people have biologically based repertoire of behaviors that are accessible to them and these behaviors are engaged for appriopriate situations
transmitted culture = cultural norms learned from other individuals
what are examples of evoked culture?
with higher parasite prevalence, there is stronger value put on physical attractiveness (singal of health) and conformity (stricter social norms for food preparation)
what are examples of transmitted culture?
watching neighbor planting wheat seeds and then planting wheat seeds
Is distinction between evoked and transmitted culture clear-cut?
No
particular behavioral script might be activated by specific situational variable → but if that behavioral pattern becomes a norm this norm might be learned by wider range of people (becoming transmitted)
what accounts for more cultural variance?
transmitted culture!
Which cultural ideas spread?
1) useful
2) communicable
3) minimally counterintuitive
4) emotional
How do cultures change?
1) globalization (high homogenity on global level, but on local level there is GLOCALIZATION - adaptation of certain products to the practices of more restricted regions)
2) rise of individualism (due to isolating leisure, work commitments, more secularity, underlying one’s uniqueness)
3) Flynn effect = increase in IQ (environment getting more stimulating and complex)
How to cultures persist?
cultural innovations are constrained by pre-existing structures!
Africa -> slave trades
regions with severe slavery trades, were associated with lower trust -> now, they experience lower economical development
also pluralistic ignorance -> even if people individually believe in sth, they may not express is due to cultural norms/beliefs (such as ideas about prohibition)
When do we acquire culture?
idea of sensitive period in development = when learning of culture is easier and faster!
How does distribution of sensitive period in human development looks like?
at birth -> developing sensory skills
later -> motor/language learning
even later -> higher cognitions
What is treated as proxy of culture acquisition?
language acquisition
What is critical period for language acquisition? studies
1) discrimination and categorization of phonemes
young infants can distinguish between phonemes in every language; this ability disappears when they are 10-12 months old
2) accent + shibboleths
* only youngest children in migrant family learns the language accent-free
3) fMRI study in bilinguals
activity in Broca area = of a person who learned English and Turkish at the same time - overlap when person speaks either of the languages
4) feral children -> brain seems to be plastic within 2 years of age; after this time it is hard to acquire language skills
What are shibboleths?
anycustomor tradition, usually a choice of phrasing or single word, that distinguishes one group of people from another
acculturation
related to learning second language
Research of Minoura (1992)
acculturation of Japanese immigrant children in USA
highest type of acculuration = youngest children ( 9 years old or less)
so age of entry is important for acquisition of new culture
HOWEVER, alternative explanation would be that children who are more exposed to culture, identify with it more
Cheung, Chudek and Heine (2011)
acculturation of Chinese immigrant children in Canada
not amount of exposure, but age of entry before the end of sensitive period predicts identification with 2nd culture
0-15 -> sensitive period -> the longer they spend in culture, the more they identified with it
31-50 -> tendency shifts -> the longer they spend in culture, the worse their acculturation was
developmental niche theory
theoretical framework for understanding and analyzing how culture shapes child development
1) physical + social setting = what affordances the physical space provides (nutrition, climate)
2) customs and practices of child rearing
3) caretaker’s psychology -> parental ethnotheories (beliefs about child development and parenting)
How cultural differences shape how kids develop motor skills?
African children acquire motor skills much faster -> because they are constantly carried (upright posture), sleep on tummy, get massages etc.
how much space does the child need? how much physical vs face to face contact?
varies between cultures
- Cameronian children - more bodily contact
- German and Greek children - more face-to-face contact
-> faster recognition of self in the mirror -> mother treated as seperate being (more attuned to baby cry - suggesting turns in conversations)
co-sleeping
idea that children should be sleeping with mother (some cultures normalize that mother should always be with a child, whereas in other cultures it is postulated that children should sleep alone)
study about co-sleeping in India vs USA parents
Americans prefered when parents slept in seperate room
Indian parents didn’t show any preference
What are cultural values endorsed by both Indian and USA parents?
incest avoidance = endorsed by both Indian and USA cultures = not likely to put children of the same ages and different genders together
What are cultural values endorsed by Indian parents?
- protection of vulnerable - youngest kid should sleep together with couple
- female chastity anxiety - protecting virginity of youngest daughter
- respect for hierarchy - adolescent boys dont have to sleep with their parents or young children
What are cultural values endorsed by American parents?
- sacred couple - parents should sleep together, without kids
- autonomy ideal - children can sleep in seperate rooms, not with their parents to learn self-reliance
what are two axis of parenting style?
- how much do you demand from your child?
- how much do you respond to your child?
what are 4 types of parenting styles?
1) permissive = high responsiveness + low demand
3) authoritative -> high responsiveness + high demand
3) uninvolved -> low responsiveness + low demand
4) authoritarian -> low responsiveness + high demand
What are differences in parenting style in the West vs East?
West -> authoritative parenting style -> focus on autonomy and self-reliance
East -> authoritarian parenting style -> focus on hierarchy and training the child
What is important to consider about authoritarian parenting style in East Asia?
from Western perspective: lower perceived parental warmth, but excellent academic performance; very cohesive family but kids seem to be less happy
however, in East Asia emotional expresiveness is different
1) they are different parental approaches depending on stage of development (indulgence of toddlers)
2) warmth + responsiceness can be communicated in different ways
3) authoritarian category seems to exclude training aspect
jiao xun
training
adherence to socially desirable behaviors, being role model
What are 3 types of attachment styles?
1) secure -> reacts positively to mother return -> curious of the environment
2) avoidant -> reacts negatively to mother return -> offended and avoids contanct
3) ambivalent -> reacts negatively to mother return -> crying, cannot calm down
different findings in attachment styles in different cultures
1) behaviors of mothers and children vary in Strange Situation = procedure might not have the same meaning everywhere
2) although, secure attachment is most often observed, other attachment styles are also identified regularly (Germany = avoidant style most prominent - early independence; Israel = ambivalent style - chldren grow up in communal environments and don’t develop exclusive attachment to their parents)
3) not all 3 attachment styles are found everywhere
Japanese/Dogon children “lack” avoidant attachment style
noun bias
- cultural variation in noun bias (prevalence of nouns relative to verbs in young children’s vocabulary)
- noun bias prevalent in West (North America)
- absent in East Asia → more verbs than nouns
why noun bias is more prevalent in North America?
2 explanations proposed
1) linguistic -> 1. nouns or verbs may appear on salient positions depending on language/ (pro) nouns are dropped in some languages
- in English syntax → nouns at the end of sentence
- in East Asian languages → verbs at the end of sentence
2. cultural ⇒ children learn to communicate about objects differently across cultures
- West → object-focused communication → objects isolated from context = analytic reasoning
- East → emphasis on relations between objects → action focused communication = holistic reasoning
article - psychological differences explained by rice vs wheat agriculture in cHINA
rice theory
rice = interdependent -> rice paddies with standing water -> farmers need to cooperate
wheat = independent -> easy to grow, doesn’t need irrigation system -> no need for cooperation
