Lecture 1 Flashcards
In this lecture, we will answer the following questions: How does criminality develop? What are the theories that explain criminality? How can criminality be prevented/reduced?
Genetics
Behavioural genetics suggest criminality is heritable (Popman & Raine, 2006)
40 - 50% (Moffitt, 2005)
Associations between specific genes and antisocial behaviour (Caspi et al, 2002)
- Monoamine neurotransmitter genes.
Nutrition
Vitamin and mineral deficiencies during infancy related to aggression (Werbach, 1992)
Poor nutrition during pregnancy (omega 3) related to criminality (Hallahan et al, 2007).
Abnormal Brains
11% reduction in prefrontal cortex size in antisocial personality disorder (Raine et al, 2000)
Deficits in amygdala-hippocampus links
- Fear conditioning (Gao et al,2010).
Brain Injury
Frontal lobe can cause criminal behaviour (Turkstra et al, 2003)
Self reported head injuries can be a risk factor in criminality (Huw Williams et al, 2010).
Physiology of a criminal
Antisocial people show low resting heart beat (Raine et al, 1997). High heart rate = protective (Brennan 1997).
Criminals show reduced skin conductance responses (Lorber, 2004). Predictive for future criminality.
Neurobiology
Reduced cortisol associated with violent children and adults (Cima et al, 2008) - Low cortisol relates to reduced sensitivity to stressors.
Increased testosterone associated with violent crime (Scerbo & Kolko, 1994)
Temperament
Extraversion + neuroticism + psychoticism = criminal
Intelligence
Low IQ predicts criminality (White et al, 1989)
Best replicated neuropsychological predictor of criminality.
Executive functions
Executive dysfunction found in criminal populations (Hancock et al, 2010
- Not always in psychopathy
Executive dysfunction is a term for the range of cognitive, emotional and behavioural difficulties which often occur after injury to the frontal lobes of the brain.
White collar criminals had significantly better executive functioning (Raine et al, 2012)
Fraud, Bribery, Insider trading, cybercrime, copyright money laundering, identity theft, and forgery.
Empathy
Negatively related to bullying (Joliffe & Farrington, 2006), seen as precursor to aggressive and criminal behaviour
Cognitive empathy is strongly negatively related to delinquency.
Family Risk Factors (Distal Risk Factors)
Family criminality
Social adversity
Family violence
Family Risk Factors (Proximal Risk Factors)
Parental Psychopathology
Parenting
Physical Abuse
Family Risk Factors
Factors intertwined therefore can’t always target risk factors in isolation
Need to consider whether factor is casually related to child out come
Parenting
Poor parenting supervision strongest predictor of later criminality (Hoghughi & Speight, 1998).
- Authoritative - criminals
- Cold rejecting parents
- Parental warmth can be protective factor against other risk factors.
Parental conflict
Divorce and remarriage tends to predict criminality
Parental conflict not divorce when child is under 5 (Fergusson * Horwood, 1998).
Criminal parents
Criminal parents tend to have criminal children (Farrington et al, 2009).
63% of boys convicted
Social Learning Theory
Imitation and vicarious learning
Conditioning must be present: Child sees a bad person punished, therefore less likely to behave badly themselves.
Family Size
Large family size predicts criminality.
Legalised abortion reduces crime in families (Donohue & Levitt, 2001).
Family Based Interventions
Health visitors to parents prevent criminality
Family training reduces criminality
Introduced 2004 will produce benefits from 2020
Socio-economic status
Low SES 8-10 years old predicts criminality
Wage does not predict criminality but un employment does.
Peer Influences:
Differential association
Subcultural delinquency
Differential association:
Association with criminals learn attitude and how to commit crime.
Subcultural delinquency -
Problems at home/school associate with gangs to achieve status, self-esteem and belonging.
Desistance
Hobbies (Horney et al, 1995) Good job A good relationship: reduced interaction with deviant peers Social control Routines
Desistance (Cognitive Shifts)
Openness to change
Self-driven prosocial experiences
Adherence to prosocial identity
Negative perception of criminal lifestyle.
Offending pathways Adolescence limited
Delay delinquency until adolescence
Less serious forms of delinquent behaviour
More likely to desist from criminal behaviour
Motivated by gap between biological maturity and social maturity
Offending Pathways
Life Course Persistent
Early history of antisocial behaviour
More serious and violent delinquent behaviour
Persist into adulthood
Neuropsychological deficits interacts with family and social factors.
Why are these theories important?
Implications for offender profiling – look for individuals with certain backgrounds – e.g. likely early delinquency
Implications for treatment – environmental changes may not help if biological causation; reduce association to criminal peers if social perspective
Understanding of multidisciplinary working – social workers (social) may have different views on causation to psychiatrists (biological/medical)
