Lecture 1

Question 1

Genetics

Answer 1

Behavioural genetics suggest criminality is heritable (Popman & Raine, 2006)

40 - 50% (Moffitt, 2005)

Associations between specific genes and antisocial behaviour (Caspi et al, 2002)
- Monoamine neurotransmitter genes.

Question 2

Nutrition

Answer 2

Vitamin and mineral deficiencies during infancy related to aggression (Werbach, 1992)

Poor nutrition during pregnancy (omega 3) related to criminality (Hallahan et al, 2007).

Question 3

Abnormal Brains

Answer 3

11% reduction in prefrontal cortex size in antisocial personality disorder (Raine et al, 2000)

Deficits in amygdala-hippocampus links
- Fear conditioning (Gao et al,2010).

Question 4

Brain Injury

Answer 4

Frontal lobe can cause criminal behaviour (Turkstra et al, 2003)

Self reported head injuries can be a risk factor in criminality (Huw Williams et al, 2010).

Question 5

Physiology of a criminal

Answer 5

Antisocial people show low resting heart beat (Raine et al, 1997). High heart rate = protective (Brennan 1997).

Criminals show reduced skin conductance responses (Lorber, 2004). Predictive for future criminality.

Question 6

Neurobiology

Answer 6

Reduced cortisol associated with violent children and adults (Cima et al, 2008) - Low cortisol relates to reduced sensitivity to stressors.

Increased testosterone associated with violent crime (Scerbo & Kolko, 1994)

Question 7

Temperament

Answer 7

Extraversion + neuroticism + psychoticism = criminal

Question 8

Intelligence

Answer 8

Low IQ predicts criminality (White et al, 1989)

Best replicated neuropsychological predictor of criminality.

Question 9

Executive functions

Answer 9

Executive dysfunction found in criminal populations (Hancock et al, 2010
- Not always in psychopathy

Executive dysfunction is a term for the range of cognitive, emotional and behavioural difficulties which often occur after injury to the frontal lobes of the brain.

White collar criminals had significantly better executive functioning (Raine et al, 2012)

Fraud, Bribery, Insider trading, cybercrime, copyright money laundering, identity theft, and forgery.

Question 10

Empathy

Answer 10

Negatively related to bullying (Joliffe & Farrington, 2006), seen as precursor to aggressive and criminal behaviour

Cognitive empathy is strongly negatively related to delinquency.

Question 11

Family Risk Factors (Distal Risk Factors)

Answer 11

Family criminality
Social adversity
Family violence

Question 12

Family Risk Factors (Proximal Risk Factors)

Answer 12

Parental Psychopathology
Parenting
Physical Abuse

Question 13

Family Risk Factors

Answer 13

Factors intertwined therefore can’t always target risk factors in isolation

Need to consider whether factor is casually related to child out come

Question 14

Parenting

Answer 14

Poor parenting supervision strongest predictor of later criminality (Hoghughi & Speight, 1998).

• Authoritative - criminals
• Cold rejecting parents
• Parental warmth can be protective factor against other risk factors.

Question 15

Parental conflict

Answer 15

Divorce and remarriage tends to predict criminality

Parental conflict not divorce when child is under 5 (Fergusson * Horwood, 1998).

Question 16

Criminal parents

Answer 16

Criminal parents tend to have criminal children (Farrington et al, 2009).

63% of boys convicted

Question 17

Social Learning Theory

Answer 17

Imitation and vicarious learning

Conditioning must be present: Child sees a bad person punished, therefore less likely to behave badly themselves.

Question 18

Family Size

Answer 18

Large family size predicts criminality.

Legalised abortion reduces crime in families (Donohue & Levitt, 2001).

Question 19

Family Based Interventions

Answer 19

Health visitors to parents prevent criminality

Family training reduces criminality

Introduced 2004 will produce benefits from 2020

Question 20

Socio-economic status

Answer 20

Low SES 8-10 years old predicts criminality

Wage does not predict criminality but un employment does.

Question 21

Peer Influences:

Differential association

Subcultural delinquency

Answer 21

Differential association:
Association with criminals learn attitude and how to commit crime.

Subcultural delinquency -
Problems at home/school associate with gangs to achieve status, self-esteem and belonging.

Question 22

Desistance

Answer 22

Hobbies (Horney et al, 1995)
Good job
A good relationship: reduced interaction with deviant peers
Social control
Routines

Question 23

Desistance (Cognitive Shifts)

Answer 23

Openness to change

Self-driven prosocial experiences

Adherence to prosocial identity

Negative perception of criminal lifestyle.

Question 24

Offending pathways Adolescence limited

Answer 24

Delay delinquency until adolescence

Less serious forms of delinquent behaviour

More likely to desist from criminal behaviour

Motivated by gap between biological maturity and social maturity

Question 25

Offending Pathways

Life Course Persistent

Answer 25

Early history of antisocial behaviour

More serious and violent delinquent behaviour

Persist into adulthood

Neuropsychological deficits interacts with family and social factors.

Question 26

Why are these theories important?

Answer 26

Implications for offender profiling – look for individuals with certain backgrounds – e.g. likely early delinquency

Implications for treatment – environmental changes may not help if biological causation; reduce association to criminal peers if social perspective

Understanding of multidisciplinary working – social workers (social) may have different views on causation to psychiatrists (biological/medical)