LEC 7a Qualitative Research Flashcards
Qualitative Research
-Focus on explaining the reality of the world through the perspective of the participants
-The data are descriptive (words not numbers)
-Data are collected from natural settings (not laboratories)
-The ‘researcher’ is the instrument used to collect the data (not equipment)
-n natural settings, the researcher is actively involved with bthe participants when collecting data
-Results of the study tend to be subjective
-The researchers are concerned with the process, not the outcomes (doesnt matter if A causes B)
data are analyzed inductively (collect first, ask later)
in comparison to quantitative research
Relatively smaller population samples
Context specific
carefully selected sample (aka “purposive sampling”)
may include accessing:
subject matter experts (SME)
group members
witness
conducting qualitative research requires you to undertake the following steps
- define the problem
- identify the theoretical framework
- develop the research question(s)
- choose the most appropriate study design
- select the participants; purposeful
- training and pilot work
- entering the setting
- data collection
- data analyses
- generate a report of the findings
Many theories exist within the realm of qualitative research; however, the key theories include:
phenomenological perspective
symbolic interaction
critical theory
Theoretical Foundations: Phenomenological perspective
-Max Weber: social theorist
—-known as the “principal architect of modern social science” (including the field of sociology)
-attempt to understand life through the eyes of the participant
-the researcher must rid his / her mind of preconceptions about the participant
Theoretical Foundations: Symbolic interaction
-George Herbert Mead: philosopher and social theorist
—-how people create and understand life based on their interactions with others
-gestures (verbal and non-verbal) made by people are considered to be ‘symbols
- people act based on symbolic meanings they find within any given situation
- language is itself a symbolic form, which is used to anchor meanings to the symbols
—-The goal of our interactions with one another is to create shared meaning through symbols
Theoretical Foundations: Critical Theory
-Karl Marx: philosopher, sociologist, historian, economist
—wrote the Communist Manifesto (with Friedrich Engels) and Das Kapital
-theory is oriented towards critiquing and changing society as a whole
-critical theorists study how the construction of knowledge and the organization of power in society generally (and in institutions such as schools, hospitals, and governments specifically) can lead to the subjugation or oppression of particular individuals, groups, or perspectives
-critical theorists are concerned with equity and justice in relation to issues such as race, socioeconomic status, religion, and sexuality seeks to end oppression
Research designs
Case studies
Phenomenology
Grounded theory
Ethnography
Historical analysis
Content and discourse analysis
Research Designs: Case Studies
involves the in-depth study of a person, group, organization situation in order to develop an in-depth understanding of a particular case or phenomena
-used to narrow down a very broad field of research onto one or a few examples of the item of interest
data gathering methods:
Personal interventions
Observations
Direct interaction with participants
May occur over multiple sessions
caution: unsystematic and uncontrolled
benefits: description, evidence
Research designs: Ethnography
–A form of field research that emphasizes providing a very detailed description of a different culture from the viewpoint of an insider in the culture to facilitate understanding it
–Most often used in the field of anthropology
The study of a specific cultural group to get a clear understanding of their
-Belief systems and practices
-Organized set-up
-Lifestyle
The researcher have first-hand experience of the practices within the group
The observer participates with those being observed
participant / researcher observation (i.e., naturalistic observation) provides major part of the data that can lead to subsequent, more highly controlled research (e.g., experiments)
the reports generated from the study are usually very accurate because of the researchers’ immersion into the culture
the results are context specific and cannot be generalized to other groups or populations
Ethnography: data gathering methods:
personal interviews
observations
first-hand testimonies
immersion into culture
done within a specific time frame
Ethnography Inobtrusive observation
observations that are not influenced by the presence of the investigator
Ethnography: Inobtrusive measures
measures taken from the results of behavior not the behavior itself
Ethnography: Potential pitfalls
Findings may not be internally valid because you cannot make casual statements about the results
External validity may also be compromised because results may only be generalizable to a particular environment
Errors in the wat the researcher takes in and processes information may occur
Occur from relations, or lack of relations, with others in the setting being studied
Must be aware that varying perspectives exist within a setting- all must be given equal weight, not just the ones that the researcher gains first or most easily
Not appropriate for large populations, events of long duration, infrequent events
Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA)
During data analysis researcher attempts to merge data into a holistic portrayal of phenomenon
Holistic = big picture
Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA): Data analysis
Content analysis
Narrative analysis
Discourse analysis
Thematic analysis
Grounded theory
IPA
Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA): Content analysis
-The most common and straightforward QDA method
-Used to evaluate patterns within a piece of content
Eg. Words, phrases, images, multiple pieces of content or sources of communication such as a collection of newspaper articles
-Can be used in a wide variety of ways\
Important to go into your analysis with a very specific question and goal
-Group large amounts of text inro codes, summarize these into categories, and possibly even tabulate the data to calculate the frequency of certain concepts or variables
-Identify the frequency with which an idea is shared or spoken about
-Identify patterns of deeper underlying interpretations by identifying phrases or words
Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA): Drawbacks
-Can be very time consuming
-Requires lots of reading and re-reading the texts
-Because of its multidimensional focus on both qualitative and quantitative aspects, it is sometimes accused of losing important nuances in communication
-Tends to concentrate on a very specific timeline and doesn’t take into account what happened beofre or after that timeline
Narrative analysis
Listening to people telling stories and analyzing what it means
Can be used too explore whether hoe something being said is important
Can provide insight into their view of the world
Provides powerful insight into participants’ mindsets and perspectives
Important to listen and understand the way information is being shard/ told
Narrative analysis: Drawbacks
-Sample sizes are generally quite small
-Vary time- consuming process of capturing narratives
-Social and lifestyle factors can influence a participants
-Narrative analysis can be quite difficult to reproduce in subsequent research
-Researcher bias can have strong influence on results
-Be careful not to draw broad conclusions!
Discourse Analysis
-If your research aims and objectives involve understanding culture or power dynamics, discourse analysis can be a powerful method
-Analyzing language within its social context
analyzing language – such as a conversation, a speech, etc. – within the culture and society it takesplace in.
by using discourse analysis, you can identify how culture, history or power dynamics) have an effect on the way concepts are spoken about
Discourse Analysis: Drawbacks
-Many social influences contribute to how we speak to eachother
-Have a very specific research question in mind when analyzing your data and looking for patterns and themes, or you might be going up an down a rabbit hole
-Can also be vary time consuming as you need to sample the data to the point of saturation (until no new insights emerge)
Thematic Analysis
-If your research aims and objectives involve understanding peoples experience or view of something, thematic analysis can be a great choice
-Patterns on meaning in a data set (a set of interviews or focus group transcriptions)
-Takes bodies of data (which are often quite large) and groups them according to similarities (themes)
-The themes help us make sense of the content and derive meaning from it
Thematic analysis is a bit of an exploratory process
-Not unusual for tour research questions to develop, or even change as you progress through the analysis
Thematic Analysis: Drawbacks
-The exploratory nature of thematic analysis research means that data needs to be re reviewed each time a research question is adjusted
-Can be quite time consuming
Grounded theory
-Powerful qualitative analysis method where the intention is to create a new theory (or theories) using the data a t hand, through a series of “tests: and “revisions”
-Useful method when you’re researching a topic that is completely new or has very little existing research about it, it allows you to start from scratch and work from the ground up
-Keep an open mind and let the data speak for itself- rather than dragging existing hypotheses into your analysis
-You start with a general overarching question about a given population then you begin to analyze a small sample…
-Ideally the sample should be reasonably representative of the broader population
-Conduct interviews to collect the necessary info
-After analyzing the interview data, a general hypothesis to pattern could emerge
-Next, you will look for another small sample and see whether this pattern or hypothesis holds true for them
-If not look for commonalities and adapt theory accordingly
-As this process continues, the theory develops
-What’s important with the grounded theory is that the theory develops from the data- not from some preconceived idea
-You have to let the data speak for itself
Grounded theory: Drawbacks
- Circularity- for grounded theory to work, in principle, you should know as little as possible a regarding the research question and population, so that you reduce the bias in your interpretation
-In many circumstances, it is also thought to be unwise to approach a research question without knowledge of the current literature
Chicken or the egg
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)
-IPA is designed to help you understand the personal experiences of a subject (for example a person or group of people) concerning a major life event, an experience or a situation
-The event or experience is the ‘phenomenon’ or the phenomena that makes up the P in IPA
Phenomena may range from relatively common events to those which are extremely rare
-A great choice if your research involves analyzing peoples personal experiences ot something that happened to them
IPA is subject cantered= focused on the experiencer
-While you’ll likely use a coding system to identify commonalities, it is important to not lost the depth of experience or meaning by trying to reduce everything codes
-Keep in mind that since tour sample size will generally be very small with IPA, you often wont be able to draw broad conclusions about the generalizability of your findings
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA): Drawbacks
-Researcher bias can creep into all forms of research. But with IPA delf- awareness is critically important as is can have a major impact on the results
-If you’re going to undertake IPA, you need to be very self-aware or you could taint the analysis
Qualitative data analysis: Which is the right one to use?
-Depends on your research aims, objectives and questions
-Best tool for the job depends on what you’re trying to build
-Remember that each method has its own strengths, weaknesses and general limitations
-No single analysis method is perfect
-Therefore it often makes sense to adopt more than one method (this is called triangulation), but this is, of course, quite time-consuming
-These approaches all make use of coding and theme-generating techniques, but the intent and approach of each analysis method differ quite substantially
-Come into your research with a clear intention before you start thinking about which analysis method or methods to use
-Start by reviewing your research aims, objectives and research questions to assess what exactly you’re trying to find out then select a method that fits
-Never pick a method just because you like it or have experience using it
-Your analysis method (or methods) must align with your broader research aims and objectives
Was the research conducted competently?
CREDIBILITY- Accurate description of the subjects and setting
TRANSFERABILITY- would the results be useful to those in other setting or conducting research in similar settings
DEPENDABILITY- how well the researcher dealt with change
CONFIRMABILITY- could another individual confirm the results
WAYS RESEARCHER PROVIDE EVIDENCE OF TRUSTWORTHINESS
-Prolonged engagement with the participants and setting
-Audit trial of changes during the study
-Providing a thick description of setting and context
-Clarification of researcher bias
-Cant control everything but understanding bias and working to control it can help readers place firth in results and conclusions
-Triangulation of sources to support conclusions
-Negative case checking to see if phenomenon is as pervasive as thought
-Member checking to see if participants have information to add and agree with conclusions
-Peer debriefing to have colleague challenge results and researcher provide support
REACTIVITY
Participants will react differently than they would if they were not in the study
WHY REACTIVITY OCCURS
Evaluation apprehension
—>Concerned about the impressions they make on others
—->Concerned about how they will be judges
Socially desirable behaviours
—–>People who do not want to be perceived to be doing things that are “unacceptable”
Attention-feedback regulation
—–>The person being observed begins to notice (self- feedback) what he/ she is doing
—–>As a result, he/ she will change (self regulation) how the behaviour is done, or even what is done
HOW TO REDUCE REACTIVITY
Deception
—->Eg. Put an observers in, then remove them although you continue to observe
Reducing the degree of obtrusiveness
—–>Eg. Sitting off to the side or rear of a room, use hidden cameras
Pick neutral behaviours to observe
Concealment
—–>Don’t let the participants know what is being done Is being observes (similar to deception)
RELIABILITY
-Reliability means dependability or consistency
-Suggests that when the same things are repeated or recut under identical or very similar conditions, the outcome to results should be identical or very similar
Reliability in field research
Internal consistency
-Are the data plausible given all that is known about a person or event
-Do the pieces fit together into a coherent picture
External consistency
-The researched cross checks and verifies the qualitative data using multiple sources of information
Ways to verify information = increased reliability
-Check to make sure the observers are coding events in the same way (aka interobserver agreement)
-Compare the data produced by the same observers watching two different events at the same time (between observers)
-Comparison o coding’s produced by different observers watching similar events at different items (between observers)
-Examine the data from individual observers watching single events unfold (within observer)
VALIDITY IN FIELD RESEARCH
In quantitative research, it is the extent which a test measurement or other device measures what it is intended to measure
Example; a bathroom scale that measures someone’s weight, would be considered a valid measure; if the same scale measured height, it would not be considered a valid measure
Ecological validity
Demonstrating the authenticity and trustworthiness of a study by showing the researcher descriptions of the field site match those of the members (people being observes) and that the field researchers presence was not a disturbance
Natural History
a method used to demonstrate the authenticity and trustworthiness of a study by fully disclosing actions and procedures in depth as they occurred over time
Candid disclosure by the researcher of his/ her actions, assumptions, and procedures for others to evaluate
Member validation
A method used to demonstrate the authenticity and trustworthiness of a study by having the people who were studied read and confirm what was reported as being true
Competent insider performance
A method used to demonstrate the authenticity and trustworthiness of a study by the researcher “passing” as a member of the group under study
E.g. undercover police officers
ETHICAL DILEMMAS OF FIELD RESEARCH
Occur when the researcher is alone in the field and has little time to make a moral decision
Can arise from ab unexpected event
Five types of dilemmas
Ethical Dilemma: DECEPTION
Covert research is never preferred because of the difficulties of maintaining a front and the constant fear of being caught
Researcher may be covert (undercover)
May assume a false name, role or identity
May mislead members in some way
Ethical Dilemma: CONFIDENTIALITY
Moral obligation to uphold the confidentiality of the data
Must protect all information and refrain from using direct quotes that somehow reveal the person who said them
Ethical Dilemma: INVOLVMENT WITH DEVIANTS
-Guilty knowledge- when a researcher learns of illegal, unethical, or immoral actions by the people in the field site
-Have to be careful not the get involved enough to gain their trust, byt not to get involved enough such that you cross the line of your own moral standards
Ethical Dilemma: THE POWER
Hierarchy of credibility- the powerful are more likely to be heard because of their position
-However, you must listen to those without power
Notes and evaluations have to be unbiased/ not inflected but the degree of power a person holds/ does not hold
Ethical Dilemma: PUBLISHING OF FIELD REPORTS
-You cannot publicize member secrets (e.g. rites of passage), violate privacy, or harm reputations
-A compromise may be that the researcher only publishes the information if it is essential to researchers larger arguments
