Learning, Memory, and Neurobiology

Question 1

What is the definition of learning?

Answer 1

the process in which one acquires new behaviors

Question 2

What is a stimulus?

Answer 2

anything to which an organism can respond

Question 3

What is habituation?

Answer 3

the loss of a signal’s effect over time

Question 4

What is dishabituation?

Answer 4

the regain of a signal’s effect due to the interruption of habituation by a secondary stimulus

Question 5

What are the two types of learning?

Answer 5

associative learning and observational learning

Question 6

What are the two types of associative learning?

Answer 6

classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Question 7

What is the definition of classical conditioning?

Answer 7

the process through which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits its respective conditioned response

Question 8

When training dogs, trainers often pair a dog treat with a clicker. What is initially the neutral stimulus? When will the trainer know it has become a conditioned stimulus?

Answer 8

• the clicker

- when the dog knows it did a good job without a treat present

Question 9

What is the phenomenon called when a conditioned stimulus eventually converts back to a neutral stimulus?

Answer 9

extinction

Question 10

What is it called when an extinct conditioned stimulus randomly exhibits a weak conditioned response?

Answer 10

spontaneous recovery

Question 11

Describe what generalization means in regard to classical conditioning.

Answer 11

It means that although one particular neutral stimulus may be converted into a conditioned stimulus, a similar stimulus could replace it and still act as a conditioned stimulus even though it was not explicitly conditioned.

Question 12

Describe what discrimination means in regard to classical conditioning.

Answer 12

It means that one can be conditioned to respond differently to very similar neutral stimuli.

Question 13

A dog has acquired a conditioned response of joy when hearing a clicker. One day, his trainer forgets to bring the clicker to training. Instead, she simply snaps with her fingers, which creates a similar sound. The dog still feels joyful after the sound. This is an example of what phenomenon of classical conditioning?

Answer 13

generalization

Question 14

A dog has acquired a conditioned response of joy when hearing a clicker. One day, his trainer forgets to bring the clicker to training. Instead, she simply snaps with her fingers, which creates a similar sound. Despite the similar sound, the dog does not feel joyful after the sound. This is an example of what phenomenon of classical conditioning?

Answer 14

discrimination

Question 15

What is operant conditioning primarily used for?

Answer 15

to adjust the frequency of voluntary behaviors

Question 16

What does reinforcement do to voluntary behaviors?

Answer 16

increases their frequency

Question 17

A mother is trying to get her son to get good grades in school. Every time he gets a good grade on a test, she lets him out of doing dishes that night. This is an example of what type reinforcement?

Answer 17

negative reinforcement, avoidance learning

Question 18

What are the two types of negative reinforcement?

Answer 18

escape learning and avoidance learning

Question 19

Aspirin is an example of escape learning or avoidance learning?

Answer 19

escape learning

Question 20

What are the two types of positive reinforcers?

Answer 20

primary and secondary

Question 21

What does punishment do to voluntary behaviors?

Answer 21

decrease frequency

Question 22

What is shaping in regard to operant conditioning?

Answer 22

the “raising of the bar” as voluntary behavior is demonstrated (example: a mother might originally award her son for getting Bs on his exams, but after a while, she may “raise the bar” to As).

Question 23

What are the four main reinforcement schedules?

Answer 23

fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, variable interval

Question 24

What is the most effective reinforcement schedule? The least effective?

Answer 24

• variable ratio

- fixed interval

Question 25

Not all types of learning are considered operant or classical. What are some of the other types?

Answer 25

latent learning, trial and error, and problem-solving

Question 26

Suppose a dog has never tried to jump up on the couch by himself; his owners always lift him up and set him on it. However, when his bone is inadvertently thrown onto the couch, the dog jumps up on the couch by himself, surprising his owners. A psychologist would not be surprised, as the dog merely demonstrated what type of learning?

Answer 26

latent learning

Question 27

Is a child more likely to engage in trial and error learning or problem solving?

Answer 27

trial and error

Question 28

Why can a cat be taught to climb a tree but a fish cannot?

Answer 28

instinctive drift

Question 29

What word describes why a child can readily be taught how to walk on his feet but not his hands?

Answer 29

preparedness

Question 30

What neurons are involved in observational learning?

Answer 30

mirror neurons

Question 31

A child who watches his parents scream at each other throughout his childhood is more likely to act similarly when he is older. This is known as what in psychology in regard to observational learning?

Answer 31

modeling

Question 32

What is the definition of encoding?

Answer 32

the process of putting information into memory

Question 33

What are the two main ways to encode?

Answer 33

automatic processing and controlled processing

Question 34

What are some types of ways to do controlled processing?

Answer 34

-auditory processing, visual processing, semantic processing

Question 35

What are some tricks to encode well?

Answer 35

self-reference effect, mnemonics, maintenance rehearsal, chunking

Question 36

What are some mnemonics?

Answer 36

peg word system, method of loci

Question 37

What are the different types of storage?

Answer 37

sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, long-term memory

Question 38

Explain why sensory memory only allows for partial reports and not whole reports.

Answer 38

it only lasts for a second... the whole report cannot be listed off in a second

Question 39

How long does short-term memory last?

Answer 39

30 seconds

Question 40

What type of memory do you use when you do math inside your head?

Answer 40

working memory

Question 41

What are the two main types of memories in long-term memory?

Answer 41

explicit and implicit memory

Question 42

What are the two types of explicit memory?

Answer 42

episodic and semantic

Question 43

Remembering living in one's first home is an example of what type of memory?

Answer 43

explicit memory, episodic

Question 44

What is a good way for someone to commit concepts to long-term memory?

Answer 44

elaborative rehearsal

Question 45

What is the definition of retrieval?

Answer 45

the ability to demonstrate knowledge or memory

Question 46

What are some ways that retrieval is accomplished?

Answer 46

recall, recognition, relearning

Question 47

Why is that relearning solidifies retrieval?

Answer 47

the spacer effect

Question 48

What are some retrieval cues?

Answer 48

priming, context clues, state-dependent memory

Question 49

Explain what is meant by semantic networking.

Answer 49

it is the idea that knowledge in the brain is not dispersed randomly; related concepts are grouped together

Question 50

A student hears the chemical name of "pyruvate" and instantly remembers all of the structures in glycolysis. What phenomenon occurred here?

Answer 50

spreading activation

Question 51

What are some reasons one can forget information?

Answer 51

brain disorders, natural decay, aging

Question 52

What are some brain disorders?

Answer 52

Alzheimers (a form of dementia), Korsakoff's Deficiency, Agnosia

Question 53

What is deficient in Korsakoff's deficiency?

Answer 53

thiamine

Question 54

What is agnosia?

Answer 54

the inability to recognize a person, shape, or voice

Question 55

What is retroactive interference?

Answer 55

replacing of old memories with new memories

Question 56

What is proactive interference?

Answer 56

the inability to learn new things due to conflict old memories

Question 57

Old people tend to lose what type of memory?

Answer 57

proactive memory

Question 58

True or False Memories are objective retellings of events.

Answer 58

false

Question 59

What is an example of a false memory?

Answer 59

misinformation effect

Question 60

What is source amnesia?

Answer 60

the confusing of semantic and episodic events

Question 61

A birdwatcher sees a yellow bird during his morning hike. His wife accidentally refers to the bird as red later in the afternoon. The birdwatcher does not recognize the error and forever remembers the bird as red? What happened here?

Answer 61

a false memory (misinformation effect)

Question 62

A dad is trying to remember a story about his own childhood but ends up remembering a story that happened to his brother, yet the dad thinks it is his own experience. What happened here?

Answer 62

source amnesia

Question 63

What is the stage referred to when a child is very young and has lots of neurons that can readily learn new things?

Answer 63

neuroplasticity

Question 64

What is the process through which solid memories are further solidified at the expense of weaker memories?

Answer 64

synaptic pruning

Question 65

What is the process through which increased neuron density results in the conversion of short-term memory into long-term memory?

Answer 65

long-term potentiation