Cognition, Consciousness, and Language

Question 1

What does cognition refer to?

Answer 1

the processes through which we obtain knowledge and comprehension

Question 2

What is the model that describes cognition?

Answer 2

information processing model

Question 3

What are the four parts of the information processing model?

Answer 3

• our brains must sense, encode, and store information
• in order to use information for problem-solving, information must be analyzed
• problem-solving can be extrapolated
• context and complexity of situation also affects cognition

Question 4

What is situational modification?

Answer 4

the way in which previously solved problems can assist in solving new ones

Question 5

What is cognitive development?

Answer 5

the process through which we learn how to think and solve problems

Question 6

What are the four stages of Piaget’s cognitive development?

Answer 6

sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage

Question 7

Piaget believed that infants categorize concepts of their childhood into structures called _____.

Answer 7

schemata

Question 8

True or False.

Piaget believed that children form schema based on instinctual interactions with the environment.

Answer 8

true

Question 9

What is the process called when a new schema is formed?

Answer 9

adaptation

Question 10

What is it called when a new concept is adding to an existing schema?

Answer 10

assimilation

Question 11

What is it called when a schema must be corrected slightly based on new information?

Answer 11

accommodation

Question 12

What happens in the sensorimotor stage?

Answer 12

primary and secondary circular reactions

Question 13

What marks the end of the sensorimotor stage?

Answer 13

object permanence (representational thought)

Question 14

What happens in the preoperational stage?

Answer 14

symbolic thinking, centration, egocentrism

Question 15

What happens in the concrete operational stage?

Answer 15

no more centration or egocentrism but there is no abstract thought yet

Question 16

The formal operational stage is characterized by what?

Answer 16

abstract thinking

Question 17

What are factors that can affect cognitive stages?

Answer 17

culture, aging, disorders

Question 18

What is the difference between fluid and crystallized intelligence?

Answer 18

fluid intelligence refers to problem-solving skills, whereas crystallized intelligence refers to skills and facts

Question 19

As a student takes a chemistry exam, he is asked to answer a question he has never seen before but requires application of already-learned concepts. What type of intelligence is this?

Answer 19

fluid intelligence

Question 20

What would be the diagnosis if a patient presented with random and sporadic fluctuations in cognitive ability?

Answer 20

delirium

Question 21

True or False

Someone who has good cognitive abilities should be good at solving problems.

Answer 21

true

Question 22

What are the main steps to problem-solving?

Answer 22

1. identify the problem and frame it properly
2. identify possible solutions
3. choose the correct solution

Question 23

Explain the Duncker’s candle problem.

Answer 23

This famous example involves trying to hang a candle on the wall without having dripping wax. The student has a match box, candle, and tacks. He cannot figure out that the match box can be used to both light the candle as well as catch dripping wax. His mental set tells him match boxes are only used for lighting the candle and not for anything else. Therefore, this example exposes the phenomenon of functional fixedness.

Question 24

What are the main types of problem solving?

Answer 24

trial and error, algorithm, deductive reasoning (top-down), and inductive reasoning (bottom-up).

Question 25

What are some ways that are brain quickly solves problems?

Answer 25

heuristics, intuition, bias, and emotion

Question 26

What are the two types of heuristics?

Answer 26

availability heuristic and representative heuristic

Question 27

Suppose someone is tall and athletic. When you see them, you expect to hear that they play basketball. Even though they tell you that they don't play basketball, you are still surprised when they try to dribble and cannot. What heuristic prevented you from correctly guessing?

Answer 27

representative heuristic

Question 28

Suppose somebody claims that racism does not exist because they notice that one black coworker seems to get a promotion quicker than they do due to the individual's diversity. What heuristic prevents the person from acknowledging racism as a social phenomenon?

Answer 28

availability heuristic

Question 29

Describe the basal rate fallacy. What heuristic does it play into?

Answer 29

- using stereotypes rather than actual numerical information | - representative heuristic

Question 30

True or False. All heuristics are bad.

Answer 30

false

Question 31

What is confirmation bias?

Answer 31

only looking at information that supports what you want the answer to be and ignoring other information

Question 32

What does the disconfirmation principle state?

Answer 32

that a solution that is not supported by experimental evidence should be thrown out

Question 33

What is intuiton?

Answer 33

the ability to use previous patterns to quickly identify a solution

Question 34

What model describes intuition?

Answer 34

the recognition-primed decision model

Question 35

How is emotion involved in problem-solving?

Answer 35

it can affect the solution by interfering with sound judgment

Question 36

List the intelligences in Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences

Answer 36

logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic sense, linguistic, visual-spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences

Question 37

What is the formula for IQ?

Answer 37

intelligence age/actual age x 100%

Question 38

If somebody has an IQ of 100, what does it say about this person?

Answer 38

they are exactly as intelligent as the average person who shares their age

Question 39

What are the different states of consciousness?

Answer 39

alertness, sleeping, dreaming, hypnosis, and meditation

Question 40

What hormone generally confers a state of alertness?

Answer 40

cortisol

Question 41

What connection between the midbrain and frontal cortex is involved in alertness?

Answer 41

reticular formation

Question 42

How long does a sleep cycle generally last?

Answer 42

90 min

Question 43

How is sleep monitored?

Answer 43

via an EEG

Question 44

What waves correspond to an individual who is awake?

Answer 44

alpha and beta waves

Question 45

Suppose somebody is alert. What waves would you see on an EEG?

Answer 45

beta waves

Question 46

What waves are found in stage 1 of NREM sleep?

Answer 46

theta waves

Question 47

What waves are found in stage 2 of NREM sleep?

Answer 47

theta waves, K complexes, and sleep spindles

Question 48

What separates two consecutive sleep cycles?

Answer 48

REM sleep

Question 49

Why is REM sleep called paradoxical sleep?

Answer 49

the EEG suggests that the individual is awake

Question 50

What hormone regulates the sleep cycle?

Answer 50

melatonin (seratonin derived)

Question 51

What are the four theories/models of dreaming?

Answer 51

activation-synthesis, problem-solving, cognitive processing, and neurocognitive model

Question 52

What are the two general classes of sleeping disorders?

Answer 52

dyssomnias and parasomnias

Question 53

What are dyssomnias?

Answer 53

disorders that prevent the person from sleeping normally

Question 54

What are parasomnias?

Answer 54

disorders that cause abrupt movements in sleep

Question 55

What are some dyssomnias?

Answer 55

narcolepsy (and thus cataplexy), insomnia, sleeping paralysis, hypnopompic hallucination, hypnagogic hallucination

Question 56

What are some parasomnias?

Answer 56

night terrors, somnambulism

Question 57

What is REM rebound?

Answer 57

the phenomenon in which sleep-deprived individuals fall into shorter sleep cycles and prolong REM states

Question 58

What is hypnosis?

Answer 58

a state of consciousness in which one's free will is seemingly compromised

Question 59

What is meditation?

Answer 59

a state of consciousness that resembles stage 1 of NREM but also has some alpha waves

Question 60

What are the four main types of consciousness-altering drugs?

Answer 60

depressants, stimulants, opiates/opioids, and hallucinogens

Question 61

What receptor do depressants target?

Answer 61

GABA receptors

Question 62

What do GABA receptors do?

Answer 62

they cause hyperpolarization and thus inhibit brain neurons

Question 63

What are some examples of depressants?

Answer 63

alcohol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates

Question 64

Do depressants cause an increase in dopamine?

Answer 64

yes

Question 65

What is the main mechanism of stimulants?

Answer 65

they retard the uptake of neurotransmitters

Question 66

What are some general symptoms of stimulant use?

Answer 66

accelerated heat rate, high blood pressure, high temperature sweating, decrease appetite

Question 67

What are some examples of stimulants?

Answer 67

amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy (methamphetamine)

Question 68

What is the difference between an opioid and an opiate?

Answer 68

opiates are natural, whereas opioids are semisynthetic

Question 69

What is an example of an opioid?

Answer 69

heroine (diacetyl morphine)

Question 70

What is an example of an opiate?

Answer 70

morphine

Question 71

What do opioids/opiates do?

Answer 71

lower pain by binding to opioid receptors

Question 72

Why can opioid abuse lead to death?

Answer 72

it can cause breathing to stop

Question 73

What do hallucinogens do?

Answer 73

they cause reality to be distorted and also increase heart rate, blood pressure, dilate pupils, etc.

Question 74

What is a well known hallucinogen?

Answer 74

lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD0

Question 75

Why is marijuana unique?

Answer 75

it demonstrates characteristics of depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens

Question 76

What is the main ingredient in marijuana?

Answer 76

tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

Question 77

What are symptoms of marijuana use?

Answer 77

dry throat, fatigue, increased heart rate, increased appetite, low blood pressure, red eyes

Question 78

Why is ecstasy unique?

Answer 78

although it is categorized as a stimulant, it also acts as a hallucinogen

Question 79

What pathway is involved in drug addiction?

Answer 79

mesolimbic reward pathway

Question 80

What parts make up the mesolimbic reward pathway?

Answer 80

ventral tegmental area, medial frontal bundle, nucleus accumens

Question 81

What are the two types of attention?

Answer 81

selective attention and divided attention

Question 82

What are the five main parts of language structure?

Answer 82

phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics

Question 83

What are the three main theories of language development?

Answer 83

nativist, behavioral, and social interactionist

Question 84

What age does the language "explosion" happen?

Answer 84

18-20 months

Question 85

What is the Whorfian hypothesis?

Answer 85

the notion that language creates our reality, and not the other way around

Question 86

What is aphasia?

Answer 86

the deficit of language production or comprehension

Question 87

What part of the brain does expressive aphasia affect?

Answer 87

Broca's area

Question 88

What part of the brain does receptive aphasia affect?

Answer 88

Wernicke's area

Question 89

What connects the Broca's area and Wernicke's area?

Answer 89

arcuate fasiculus

Question 90

Damage to the arcuate fasciulus can lead to what type of aphasia?

Answer 90

conduction aphasia