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4. BIOL257 > Learning and memory > Flashcards

Learning and memory Flashcards

1
Q

define learning:

A

acquisition of knowledge that will modify subsequent behaviours

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2
Q

define memory:

A

ability to recall or express past experiences

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3
Q

list some types of learning:

A
  • non-associative learning
  • associative
  • observational
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4
Q

learning: non-associative types

A
  • sensitisation

- habituation

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5
Q

learning: non-associative sensitisation

A

enhanced behavioural response following noxious stimulus

- unpleasant

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6
Q

learning: non-associative habituation

A

decreased behavioural response following repeated presentation of neutral stimulus

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7
Q

learning: associative types

A
  • classical conditioning

- operant conditioning

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8
Q

learning: associative classical conditioning

A
  • eg. Pavlov’s dog (salivation when bell is rung)
  • involuntary reflexive behaviour
  • animal ‘learns’ that conditioned stimulus (CS: bell) precedes ‘unconditioned’ stimulus (US: food)
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9
Q

learning: associative operant conditioning

A
  • eg. Skinner box
  • voluntary behavioural outcome
  • animal learns to associate behavioural choice (coloured light) with outcome/ consequence (punishment/ reward)
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10
Q

learning: observational learning

A
  • learning by observing others

- not necessarily require reinforcement

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11
Q

memory classified functionally depending on:

A
  • duration
  • context
  • level of top-down control/ conscious awareness
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12
Q

memory pathway: information into

A
  • short term (working memory)

- long term

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13
Q

memory pathway: long term into

A
  • explicit

- implicit

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14
Q

memory pathway: explicit (declarative) into

A
  • episodic (events)
  • semantic (facts)
  • spatial (places)
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15
Q

memory pathway: implicit (non-declarative) into

A
  • procedural (motor tasks)
  • priming (associations)
  • associative learning
  • non-associative learning
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16
Q

short term memory: features

A
  • last few secs
  • store info temporarily for subsequent recall
  • eg. remembering telephone no.
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17
Q

working memory: features

A
  • store info temporarily while executing a task
  • eg. remembering set of no. when doin sum
  • represents framework where prefrontal cortex controls 2 neural loops that serve to hold data ‘in mind’ while task is performed
    1. visual loop (PFC and visual cortex ‘scratch pad’
    2. phonological loop (PFC, Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas)
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18
Q

long term memory: define

A

explicit (declarative) memory- conscious effort needed to retrieve memories of past events

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19
Q

long term memory eg: episodic

A
  • relate to experiences in your life

- eg. holiday, first kiss

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20
Q

long term memory eg: semantic

A
  • facts or general knowledge

- eg. knowing roughly 90 billion neurons in brain

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21
Q

long term memory eg: spatial

A
  • orientation and navigation

- eg. knowing where you are/ how to get somewhere

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22
Q

long term memory: neocortex

A

memories transferred from hippocampus during sleep

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23
Q

long term memory: hippocampus

A

= archicortex in medial temporal lobe

- storage and indexing of memories for later recall

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24
Q

long term memory: amygdala

A

influences strength of memories due to emotional salience (prominent)

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25
Q

long term memory: implicit (non-declarative) memory define

A

automatic recall wit lil/ no conscious effort

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26
Q

long term memory: implicit memory types

A
  • procedural
  • priming
  • associative learning
  • non-associative learning
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27
Q

long term memory: implicit memory procedural

A
  • automatic motor task

- eg. driving car, riding a bike

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28
Q

long term memory: implicit memory priming

A
  • activating an association in memory (semantic, perceptual, conceptual)
  • eg. showing someone word ‘yellow’ generate faster response to banana vs ‘phone’
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29
Q

long term memory: implicit memory - priming brain part used

A
  • neocortex

- especially PFC and extrastriate cortex

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30
Q

long term memory: implicit memory - procedural memory brain part used

A
  • dorsal striatum (caudate, putamen)

- cerebellum

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31
Q

long term memory: implicit memory associative learning

A
  • classic conditioning, operant conditioning
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32
Q

long term memory: implicit memory associative learning - skeletal musculature?

A

cerebellum

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33
Q

long term memory: implicit memory associative learning - emotional response

A

amygdala

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34
Q

long term memory: implicit memory associative learning - reward

A

ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens)

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35
Q

long term memory: implicit memory non-associative learning part of brain

A
  • sensitisation, habituation

reflex pathways

36
Q

neuroplasticity: short term memory

A
  • synaptic plasticity (eg. presynaptic facilitation)

- changes in release and function of NTs

37
Q

neuroplasticity: long term memory

A
  • synaptic plasticity (eg. long term potentiation)
  • structural plasticity= rewriring/ new synapses/ new neurons
  • synthesis of new proteins (eg. receptors), formation or elimination of synapses
38
Q

sensitisation of gill withdrawal reflex in Aplysia: brief description

A
  • apylsia withdraws gill when siphon is touched
  • if noxious stimulus to another part of body, gill withdrawn rapidly
  • next time siphon touched again, gill withdrawn faster and longer
  • tail shock lasts mins, repeated even longer-lasting sensitisation
39
Q

sensitisation of gill withdrawal reflex in Aplysia: what type of learning

A

non-associative learning

40
Q

action potential in Aplysia: distal end of siphon sensory neuron

A

identical before/ after sensitisation

41
Q

action potential in Aplysia: axon terminal of siphon sensory neuron

A

lasts longer after sensitisation

42
Q

action potential in Aplysia: prolonged glutamate release causes

A

stronger response (depolarisation) in gill motor neuron

43
Q

long term learning: rabbit hippocampus after intense/ repeated stimulation of presynaptic neuron

A
  • amplitude of postsynaptic potential increased
44
Q

long term potentiation (LTP): define

A

long term strengthening of synaptic activity

45
Q

long term potentiation (LTP): induced by

A
  • brief (secs) high frequency (100Hz) bursts/ tetanus of action potentials
46
Q

long term potentiation (LTP): hippocampus importance

A

responsible for formation and retrieval of long lasting explicit (declarative) memories (facts/ events)

47
Q

long term potentiation (LTP): damage to hippocampus

A

prevent formation of new explicit memories

48
Q

long term potentiation (LTP): unaffected memory by hippocampus

A

implicit (procedural) memory (things done unconsciously)

49
Q

long term potentiation (LTP): also observed where

A
  • involved in forming memories

- neocortex

50
Q

long term potentiation (LTP): not observed where

A
  • areas not involved in memory formation

- eg. brainstem

51
Q

long term potentiation (LTP): role of hippocampus in explicit (spatial) memory

A
  • rodents in Morris water maze
  • control rats after 10 trials swam straight to second platform using environmental cues
  • rats w hippocampal lesions still could not remember where to find platform
52
Q

long term potentiation (LTP): types of ligand (glutamate) ion channels (ionotropic) receptors

A
  • AMPA (permeable to Na and K)

- NMDA (permeable to Na, K, and Ca- normally blocked by Mg ions)

53
Q

long term potentiation (LTP) mechanism: weak stimulus

A
  • single AP in presynaptic terminal causes limited glutamate release
  • NMDA receptors blocked by Mg ions
  • Na influx generates depolarisation and small EPSP
54
Q

long term potentiation (LTP) mechanism: strong stimulus

A
  • multiple APs in presynaptic cell
  • larger glutamate release
  • AMPA channels open
  • Na influx depolarises
  • spatial and temporal summation of EPSPs generates large depolarisation (grand PSP) in postsynaptic cell
  • Mg ion forced out of NMDA receptors
  • influx Ca
55
Q

long term potentiation (LTP) mechanism: Ca importance

A
  • intracellular signalling molecule

- tiggers many mechanisms to increase synaptic strength

56
Q

long term potentiation (LTP) mechanism: rapid and large increase of Ca activates enzymes (kinases) causing

A
  • phosphorylation (modification) of AMPA receptors: stay open and let in more Na
  • insert more AMPA receptors into membrane (upregulation of gene expression and protein synthesis)
  • release ‘retrograde messengers’ (eg. nitric oxide): presynaptic neuron release more glutamate when active
  • physical changes to neurons (eg. synapses get bigger)
57
Q

long term potentiation (LTP) mechanism: all activity due to Ca is to

A
  • bring postsynaptic Vm closer to threshold when synapse is active in future
58
Q

long term potentiation (LTP): characteristics critical for selective strengthening of particular synapses during formation of memories

A
  • specificity

- associativity

59
Q

long term potentiation (LTP): characteristics specificity

A
  • high activity in pathway 1 induces LTP in that synapse, but not at other inactive synapses from different pathways (2) that converge on same cel
60
Q

long term potentiation (LTP): characteristics associativity

A
  • weak stimulus in pathway 2 does not produce LTP

- but strong stimulus to pathway 1 at same time as weak stimulus at 2, both synapses show LTP and are strengthened

61
Q

long term depression (LTD): features

A
  • enhance synaptic transmission and strengthens important neural pathways
  • need mechanism to weaken synapses for extended durations
  • help efficient functioning of procedural (implicit) memory: unconscious tasks
  • may help weaken synapses which lead to errors when learning motor behaviours
62
Q

long term depression (LTD): observed where

A
  • cerebellum (motor learning)
  • visual cortex
  • hippocampus (memory decay)
  • corpus striatum
63
Q

long term depression (LTD): triggered by

A
  • low frequency (1-5Hz) stimulation of presynaptic neuron
64
Q

long term depression (LTD): Ca conc.

A
  • slow, small and long lasting rise of Ca
65
Q

long term depression (LTD): in cerebellum

A
  • slow increase activate kinases -> phosphorylate AMPA receptors = internalised (removed) from membrane
66
Q

long term depression (LTD): in hippocampus

A
  • slow increase activates phosphatases -> dephosphorylate AMPA = internalised
67
Q

long term depression (LTD): both mechanisms cause

A
  • reduced permeability of postsynaptic membrane to NA
  • fewer AP generated in postsynaptic cell when presynaptic cell is active
  • synapse gets weaker
68
Q

structural plasticity: addition/ removal of synapses - dendritic spines

A
  • predominant site of excitatory synaptic input to many neurons in CNS
  • hippocampus, cerebellum etc
69
Q

structural plasticity: addition/ removal of synapses - dendritic spines importance

A
  • formation/ elimination of dendritic spines (and synapses) responsible for neural connectivity changes underlying storage of memories
  • dendritic spines= structural units of memory
70
Q

structural plasticity: addition/ removal of synapses -mouse motor cortex

A
  • addition of new spines following motor learning
  • neurons activated during learning and reactivated in REM sleep
  • sleep disruption prevents new spine formation
  • sleep crucial for promoting synaptic plasticity underlying memory formation
71
Q

structural plasticity: addition/ removal of neurons - post hippocampus importance

A
  • spatial navigation
72
Q

structural plasticity: addition/ removal of neurons eg. London black-cab drivers

A
  • enlarged post hippocampus
  • correlated w time spent driving
  • not in bus drivers
  • 2-4 yrs training
  • 25000 streets
73
Q

memory and limbic system: storage of memories dependent on

A
  • salience of experience/ association

- eg. level of attention/ emotional context (pleasure, fear)

74
Q

memory and limbic system: involves

A
  • cortex

- limbic structures (hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus etc)

75
Q

memory and limbic system: to be stored as long term memory must pass and why

A

circuit of Papez
- associations formed in cortex pass repeatedly through circuit -> consolidation of memories stored in modality specific areas of cortex

76
Q

memory and limbic system: damage to hippocampus

A
  • prevents forming new memories

- doesn’t affect old memories

77
Q

memory and limbic system: limbic system involved in

A

learning and forming memories concerning emotional stimuli

78
Q

memory and limbic system: amygdala influences

A

our response to emotional stimuli
- esp aversive/ fearful ones

implicit (unconscious) emotional memory

79
Q

memory and limbic system: hippocampus encodes

A
  • semantic and episodic context associated w emotional stimulus

explicit (conscious) emotional memory

80
Q

memory and limbic system: emotional stimuli reach amygdala by

A
  • direct (fast/ short) but imprecise

- indirect (slow/ long) but precise

81
Q

memory and limbic system: direct route to amygdala

A

thalamus -> amygdala

- subcortical route

82
Q

memory and limbic system: indirect route to amygdala

A

thalamus - cortex - amygdala/ hippocampus -> amygdala

- cortical route

83
Q

how does cortex moderate responses: brief

A

exerts executive control

84
Q

how does hippocampus moderate responses: brief

A

provides context

85
Q

maturation: amygdala

A

matures earlier in life

86
Q

maturation: hippocampus

A
  • slower and continues into teen yrs
  • conscious recall of childhood experiences poor
  • early childhood traumas stored in amygdala may subconsciously influence mental/ behavioural function in adults

4. BIOL257 (18 decks)

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