Learning Flashcards
Acquisition
The initial stage of the learning/conditioning process, during which the tendency to show a new conditioned response is formed.
Aversion therapy
A behaviour therapy based on principles of classical conditioning, which involves pairing an aversive or unpleasant stimulus with a maladaptive behaviour in an attempt to suppress that behaviour.
Behaviour modification
The application of the principles of operant conditioning to change undesired/problematic behaviours. Positive reinforcement is used because it is more effective in encouraging the desired behaviour.
Classical conditioning
A process of learning, in which a subject learns to respond in a desired way to a previously neutral stimulus, that has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus that elicts the desired response.
Conditioned response
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to produce a conditioned response.
[Stimulus] Contiguity
A behaviourist concept that states for learning to occur, the response must occur in the presence of, or very soon after, a stimulus is presented.
- No more than 0.5 seconds
Contingency
The principle that learning will occur only if one event appears to be dependent on or conditioned by something else.
- No probability = Do not learn
- Pairings increase = Strength of association increases between the CS and UCS
Extinction
A reduction or loss in strength of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus or reinforcement is withheld.
Learning
A lasting change in behaviour or potential for behaviour that results from experience.
Observational learning
Occurs when a new behaviour or new information is learned vicariously by watching the actions of others and the consequences they experience.
Operant conditioning
Learning that occurs in the context of experiences, or avoiding, rewards or punishments contingent upon performing a behaviour.
- We repeat actions that produce favourable results
- We avoid actions that produce unpleasant results
Punishment
The application of an unpleasant stimulus or penalty that represses a behaviour.
Fixed ratio schedule
An operant conditioning reinforcement schedule where an organism must undertake a certain number of operant responses in order to receive reinforcement.
Variable ratio schedule
A type of operant conditioning reinforcement schedule where the reinforcement is given after an unpredictable (variable) number of responses are made by the organism.
Reinforcement
Any process that increases the frequency of a desired behaviour.
Continuous reinforcement
Reinforcement after every correct response in operant conditioning.
Intermittent/partial reinforcement
Reinforcement after only some correct responses in operant conditioning.
Primary reinforcers + Example
Unlearned stimuli which have the capacity to reinforce operant responses by satisfying physiological or biological needs.
Example: Food for a hungry person
Secondary/conditioned reinforcers + Example
A previously neutral stimulus that has become reinforcing to an organism through association with another reinforcer.
Example: Money can be exchanged for ice-cream
Shaping
A technique used in operant conditioning, in which the behaviour is modified by stepwise reinforcement of behaviours that produce progressively closer approximations of the desired behaviour.
Spontaneous recovery
The recurrence of a previously extinguished response without reinforcement.
Variable interval schedule
A type of operant conditioning reinforcement schedule where the reinforcement is given to a response after a specific, unpredictable amount of time has passed.
Fixed interval schedule
An operant conditioning reinforcement schedule where an organism will be reinforced for a response only after a fixed time interval.
Stimulus discrimination
The ability to distinguish a particular stimulus from other, similar stimuli and react to it.
Stimulus generalisation
The transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus.
Systematic desensitisation
A behaviour therapy, based on the principles of classical conditioning, which involves a gradual process of eliminating a learned fear or phobia. It involves the client working through a hierarchy of fear-evoking stimuli, whilst in a state of deep relaxation.
Thorndike’s law of effect
The idea that responses followed by satisfaction will occur again, and those that are not followed by satisfaction become less likely.
Unconditioned response
The response, in classical conditioning, evoked by an unconditioned stimulus without an organism going though any primary learning.
Unconditioned stimulus
Any stimulus that can evoke a response without the organism going through any previous learning.
Positive punishment
The addition of a stimulus that weakens the likelihood of a response occurring again.
Negative punishment
The taking away of a stimulus that weakens the likelihood of a response occurring again.
Positive reinforcement
The presentation of a pleasant rewarding stimulus that increases the frequency of a particular behaviour.
Negative reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant stimulus which increases the occurrence of a behaviour.
Three types of learning:
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
- observational learning
Neutral stimulus
A stimulus that does not evoke a response.
Acquisition in classical conditioning
The moment where the unconditioned stimulus is removed and the conditioned stimulus evokes the conditioned response.
Ivan Pavlov dog experiment
- Russian psychologist Ivan pavlov, conducted study in 1860’s
- Studying role of saliva in the digestion process of dogs
- Accidentally discovered ‘psychic reflexes’
- Noticed dog began salivating when receiving food and prior to receiving food
- Dog did this due to the ‘clicking sound’ of the device delivering the food
- Pavlov assumed dog was salivating in response to some stimulus associated with food
Contingency in classical conditioning
If the CS is paired with the UCS, then the UCS is contingent on the CS.
Example of each of the following in classical conditioning
- Stimulus generalisation
- Stimulus discrimination
- Stimulus generalisation: fearing all insects not just spiders
- Stimulus discrimination: knowing the difference between home and mobile phone sounds
Classical conditioning for a prejudice
NS: Member of disliked group -> NR: No response
UCS: Parents negative reaction -> UCR: Child is angry
NS + UCS -> UCR: Child is angry
CS: Member of disliked group -> Child is angry
Skinner experiment
- B.F Skinner (1904 - 1990)
- Skinner extended Thorndikes law of effect to more complex behaviours using his ‘skinner box’
- The Skinner box was a simple device invented by Skinner, allows careful study of operant conditioning
- Rat presses bar, pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released
Types of consequences
- Reinforcement
- Punishment
Learned helplessness
Results when a person or animal is prevented repeatedly from avoiding some aversive stimulus and becomes passive and depressed.
- Looses motivation = Prevents actions
Types of schedules of reinforcement (4)
- Fixed interval schedule
- Fixed ratio schedule
- Variable interval schedule
- Variable ratio schedule
Factors of fixed interval schedule
- Provides reinforcement on a regular basis at equal time intervals (every 10 mins)
- Behaviour only needs to be performed once
- More behaviours do not earn more rewards
- Produces a clustering of responses around reward time
- Schedule is used when we want the behaviour to occur at specified times but not constantly
- Example: Salary
Factors of fixed ratio schedule
- Based on how much is done
- Produces high rates of responding
- Example: Paid based on how many bags of fruit are filled
Factors of variable ratio schedule
- Produces high rates of responding
Principles of gambling: - Small ‘wins’ are very powerful, causing many people to become addicted
- Occasional big wins, strengthen the reinforcement power of small wins
- Example: A pokies player cannot predict which press of the button will result in a win
Factors of variable interval schedule
- Produces low but fairly constant rates of responding
- This schedule is used when we want the behaviour to occur on an ongoing basis, but not too frequently
- Example: A person fishing cannot predict when he or she will catch a fish
Example of extinction in operant conditioning
A rat who previously received food when pressing a bar, no longer receives food, causing a gradual decrease in the amount of lever presses until the rat eventually stops lever pressing.
Example of generalisation in operant conditioning
Rat who receives food by pressing one lever, may press a second lever in the cage, in hopes that it will receive food.
Example of discrimination in operant conditioning
Rat does not receive food from the second lever and realises that by pressing the first lever only, he will receive food.
Possible outcomes from punishments:
- Sometimes a punishment has aspects than are rewarding to the recipient. A reprimand in a class-room may be intended as a punishment, but the child who receives attention and admiration from friends may have been rewarded instead.
- The recipient of punishment can develop an apathetic attitude and stop trying.
- The recipient learns to use the punishment on others.
- The punisher often feels guilt for punishing.
Factors of shaping
- Reinforces a series of successive steps
- Shaping requires continuous reinforcement
- Shaping is effective for teaching complex behaviours that are not likely to occur naturally
- A final goal response
Shaping used to treat phobias
- Start small: imagine one
- Look at a picture
- Look at one from a distance
- Touch one
- Hold one
What is the best way to promote fast learning and high resistance to extinction?
The best way is to begin reinforcing the desired behaviour on a continuous schedule until the behaviour is well established. Then shifting to a partial (preferably variable) schedule that is gradually more demanding.
What are some examples of operant conditioning in everyday life?
Incentive systems
- Coin deposit for shopping trolley returns
- Customer loyalty programs
- Business (car sales)
Prejudice
Demeaning others gains attention and sometimes approval from others and increase one’s self esteem at the expense of the victim.
Taste-aversion
The development of a dislike to aversion to a flavour to food that has been paired with an illness.
- Example: Chicken and nauceous
Preparedness
Organisms are biologically prepared to associate certain conditioned stimulus with unconditioned stimulus.
- Example: Thunder and lightning
Factors influencing behaviour
- Order of presentation: reinforcement should follow desired response
- Timing: reinforcers should be presented as close as possible to ensure association between response and reinforcer
- Appropriateness of the reinforcer: must be a pleasing experience
- Characteristics of the individual: reinforcement must be appropriate to the age, sex, interest of the individual
- Motivation to learn: primary factors (hunger/thirst), secondary factors (money, praise, social approval)
- Preparedness - associations occurring easier than others
- Species specific learning: differences in adaptive challenges has led to species specific learning
Behaviour modification process undertaken
1) Establish a baseline of current behaviour
2) Set a goal
3) Set-up reinforcement schedule
4) Reward
5) Remove reinforcement to check if behaviour has been modified. If so, behaviour modification has become conditioned.
Factors affecting observational learning
- Attention
- Retention
- Acquisition and later performance of behaviours demonstrated by others
- Production processes
- Motivation
Attention
The extent to which we focus on on others behaviour.
- Anything that distracts attention = negative effect on observational learning
- Model is interesting = More likely to dedicate fun attention to learning
Retention
Our ability to retain a representation of others behaviour in memory.
- Ability to pull up important information later and act on it is vital to observational learning
Production processes
Our ability to actually perform the actions we observe.
- Further practice of the learned behaviour = improvement and skill advancement
Motivation
Our need for the actions we witness and their usefulness to us.
- Observing reinforcement and punishment = motivate us to perform/ not perform behaviour
Bobo Doll Experiment
- Aim: to investigate the effects of observational learning on aggressive behaviour
- Year: 1961
- Theorist: Albert Bandura
- Sample: Young children between 3 and 6
- IV= Modelled behaviour towards doll
- DV= Aggressive behaviour towards doll
- Experiment conditions:
~ controlled setting
~ two experimental groups exposed to aggressive model
~ control group not exposed
~ groups left alone in room
~ children saw an unknown adult model act aggressively towards an inflatable clown. the Childs subsequent behaviour was evaluated for aggressive behaviour - Ethics involved:
~ vulnerable groups
~ designed/taught to act aggressively
~ emotional issues created - Conclusion: children exposed to aggressive models reproduced a good deal of aggression resembling that of the models.
