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Learning Flashcards

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1
Q

Acquisition

A

The initial stage of the learning/conditioning process, during which the tendency to show a new conditioned response is formed.

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2
Q

Aversion therapy

A

A behaviour therapy based on principles of classical conditioning, which involves pairing an aversive or unpleasant stimulus with a maladaptive behaviour in an attempt to suppress that behaviour.

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3
Q

Behaviour modification

A

The application of the principles of operant conditioning to change undesired/problematic behaviours. Positive reinforcement is used because it is more effective in encouraging the desired behaviour.

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4
Q

Classical conditioning

A

A process of learning, in which a subject learns to respond in a desired way to a previously neutral stimulus, that has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus that elicts the desired response.

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5
Q

Conditioned response

A

The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

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6
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

A previously neutral stimulus that after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to produce a conditioned response.

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7
Q

[Stimulus] Contiguity

A

A behaviourist concept that states for learning to occur, the response must occur in the presence of, or very soon after, a stimulus is presented.
- No more than 0.5 seconds

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8
Q

Contingency

A

The principle that learning will occur only if one event appears to be dependent on or conditioned by something else.

  • No probability = Do not learn
  • Pairings increase = Strength of association increases between the CS and UCS
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9
Q

Extinction

A

A reduction or loss in strength of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus or reinforcement is withheld.

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10
Q

Learning

A

A lasting change in behaviour or potential for behaviour that results from experience.

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11
Q

Observational learning

A

Occurs when a new behaviour or new information is learned vicariously by watching the actions of others and the consequences they experience.

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12
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Learning that occurs in the context of experiences, or avoiding, rewards or punishments contingent upon performing a behaviour.

  • We repeat actions that produce favourable results
  • We avoid actions that produce unpleasant results
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13
Q

Punishment

A

The application of an unpleasant stimulus or penalty that represses a behaviour.

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14
Q

Fixed ratio schedule

A

An operant conditioning reinforcement schedule where an organism must undertake a certain number of operant responses in order to receive reinforcement.

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15
Q

Variable ratio schedule

A

A type of operant conditioning reinforcement schedule where the reinforcement is given after an unpredictable (variable) number of responses are made by the organism.

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16
Q

Reinforcement

A

Any process that increases the frequency of a desired behaviour.

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17
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

Reinforcement after every correct response in operant conditioning.

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18
Q

Intermittent/partial reinforcement

A

Reinforcement after only some correct responses in operant conditioning.

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19
Q

Primary reinforcers + Example

A

Unlearned stimuli which have the capacity to reinforce operant responses by satisfying physiological or biological needs.

Example: Food for a hungry person

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20
Q

Secondary/conditioned reinforcers + Example

A

A previously neutral stimulus that has become reinforcing to an organism through association with another reinforcer.

Example: Money can be exchanged for ice-cream

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21
Q

Shaping

A

A technique used in operant conditioning, in which the behaviour is modified by stepwise reinforcement of behaviours that produce progressively closer approximations of the desired behaviour.

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22
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

The recurrence of a previously extinguished response without reinforcement.

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23
Q

Variable interval schedule

A

A type of operant conditioning reinforcement schedule where the reinforcement is given to a response after a specific, unpredictable amount of time has passed.

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24
Q

Fixed interval schedule

A

An operant conditioning reinforcement schedule where an organism will be reinforced for a response only after a fixed time interval.

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25
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

The ability to distinguish a particular stimulus from other, similar stimuli and react to it.

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26
Q

Stimulus generalisation

A

The transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus.

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27
Q

Systematic desensitisation

A

A behaviour therapy, based on the principles of classical conditioning, which involves a gradual process of eliminating a learned fear or phobia. It involves the client working through a hierarchy of fear-evoking stimuli, whilst in a state of deep relaxation.

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28
Q

Thorndike’s law of effect

A

The idea that responses followed by satisfaction will occur again, and those that are not followed by satisfaction become less likely.

29
Q

Unconditioned response

A

The response, in classical conditioning, evoked by an unconditioned stimulus without an organism going though any primary learning.

30
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

Any stimulus that can evoke a response without the organism going through any previous learning.

31
Q

Positive punishment

A

The addition of a stimulus that weakens the likelihood of a response occurring again.

32
Q

Negative punishment

A

The taking away of a stimulus that weakens the likelihood of a response occurring again.

33
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

The presentation of a pleasant rewarding stimulus that increases the frequency of a particular behaviour.

34
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus which increases the occurrence of a behaviour.

35
Q

Three types of learning:

A
  • classical conditioning
  • operant conditioning
  • observational learning
36
Q

Neutral stimulus

A

A stimulus that does not evoke a response.

37
Q

Acquisition in classical conditioning

A

The moment where the unconditioned stimulus is removed and the conditioned stimulus evokes the conditioned response.

38
Q

Ivan Pavlov dog experiment

A
  • Russian psychologist Ivan pavlov, conducted study in 1860’s
  • Studying role of saliva in the digestion process of dogs
  • Accidentally discovered ‘psychic reflexes’
  • Noticed dog began salivating when receiving food and prior to receiving food
  • Dog did this due to the ‘clicking sound’ of the device delivering the food
  • Pavlov assumed dog was salivating in response to some stimulus associated with food
39
Q

Contingency in classical conditioning

A

If the CS is paired with the UCS, then the UCS is contingent on the CS.

40
Q

Example of each of the following in classical conditioning

  • Stimulus generalisation
  • Stimulus discrimination
A
  • Stimulus generalisation: fearing all insects not just spiders
  • Stimulus discrimination: knowing the difference between home and mobile phone sounds
41
Q

Classical conditioning for a prejudice

A

NS: Member of disliked group -> NR: No response
UCS: Parents negative reaction -> UCR: Child is angry
NS + UCS -> UCR: Child is angry
CS: Member of disliked group -> Child is angry

42
Q

Skinner experiment

A
  • B.F Skinner (1904 - 1990)
  • Skinner extended Thorndikes law of effect to more complex behaviours using his ‘skinner box’
  • The Skinner box was a simple device invented by Skinner, allows careful study of operant conditioning
  • Rat presses bar, pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released
43
Q

Types of consequences

A
  • Reinforcement

- Punishment

44
Q

Learned helplessness

A

Results when a person or animal is prevented repeatedly from avoiding some aversive stimulus and becomes passive and depressed.
- Looses motivation = Prevents actions

45
Q

Types of schedules of reinforcement (4)

A
  • Fixed interval schedule
  • Fixed ratio schedule
  • Variable interval schedule
  • Variable ratio schedule
46
Q

Factors of fixed interval schedule

A
  • Provides reinforcement on a regular basis at equal time intervals (every 10 mins)
  • Behaviour only needs to be performed once
  • More behaviours do not earn more rewards
  • Produces a clustering of responses around reward time
  • Schedule is used when we want the behaviour to occur at specified times but not constantly
  • Example: Salary
47
Q

Factors of fixed ratio schedule

A
  • Based on how much is done
  • Produces high rates of responding
  • Example: Paid based on how many bags of fruit are filled
48
Q

Factors of variable ratio schedule

A
  • Produces high rates of responding
    Principles of gambling:
  • Small ‘wins’ are very powerful, causing many people to become addicted
  • Occasional big wins, strengthen the reinforcement power of small wins
  • Example: A pokies player cannot predict which press of the button will result in a win
49
Q

Factors of variable interval schedule

A
  • Produces low but fairly constant rates of responding
  • This schedule is used when we want the behaviour to occur on an ongoing basis, but not too frequently
  • Example: A person fishing cannot predict when he or she will catch a fish
50
Q

Example of extinction in operant conditioning

A

A rat who previously received food when pressing a bar, no longer receives food, causing a gradual decrease in the amount of lever presses until the rat eventually stops lever pressing.

51
Q

Example of generalisation in operant conditioning

A

Rat who receives food by pressing one lever, may press a second lever in the cage, in hopes that it will receive food.

52
Q

Example of discrimination in operant conditioning

A

Rat does not receive food from the second lever and realises that by pressing the first lever only, he will receive food.

53
Q

Possible outcomes from punishments:

A
  • Sometimes a punishment has aspects than are rewarding to the recipient. A reprimand in a class-room may be intended as a punishment, but the child who receives attention and admiration from friends may have been rewarded instead.
  • The recipient of punishment can develop an apathetic attitude and stop trying.
  • The recipient learns to use the punishment on others.
  • The punisher often feels guilt for punishing.
54
Q

Factors of shaping

A
  • Reinforces a series of successive steps
  • Shaping requires continuous reinforcement
  • Shaping is effective for teaching complex behaviours that are not likely to occur naturally
  • A final goal response
55
Q

Shaping used to treat phobias

A
  • Start small: imagine one
  • Look at a picture
  • Look at one from a distance
  • Touch one
  • Hold one
56
Q

What is the best way to promote fast learning and high resistance to extinction?

A

The best way is to begin reinforcing the desired behaviour on a continuous schedule until the behaviour is well established. Then shifting to a partial (preferably variable) schedule that is gradually more demanding.

57
Q

What are some examples of operant conditioning in everyday life?

A

Incentive systems

  • Coin deposit for shopping trolley returns
  • Customer loyalty programs
  • Business (car sales)
58
Q

Prejudice

A

Demeaning others gains attention and sometimes approval from others and increase one’s self esteem at the expense of the victim.

59
Q

Taste-aversion

A

The development of a dislike to aversion to a flavour to food that has been paired with an illness.
- Example: Chicken and nauceous

60
Q

Preparedness

A

Organisms are biologically prepared to associate certain conditioned stimulus with unconditioned stimulus.
- Example: Thunder and lightning

61
Q

Factors influencing behaviour

A
  • Order of presentation: reinforcement should follow desired response
  • Timing: reinforcers should be presented as close as possible to ensure association between response and reinforcer
  • Appropriateness of the reinforcer: must be a pleasing experience
  • Characteristics of the individual: reinforcement must be appropriate to the age, sex, interest of the individual
  • Motivation to learn: primary factors (hunger/thirst), secondary factors (money, praise, social approval)
  • Preparedness - associations occurring easier than others
  • Species specific learning: differences in adaptive challenges has led to species specific learning
62
Q

Behaviour modification process undertaken

A

1) Establish a baseline of current behaviour
2) Set a goal
3) Set-up reinforcement schedule
4) Reward
5) Remove reinforcement to check if behaviour has been modified. If so, behaviour modification has become conditioned.

63
Q

Factors affecting observational learning

A
  • Attention
  • Retention
  • Acquisition and later performance of behaviours demonstrated by others
  • Production processes
  • Motivation
64
Q

Attention

A

The extent to which we focus on on others behaviour.

  • Anything that distracts attention = negative effect on observational learning
  • Model is interesting = More likely to dedicate fun attention to learning
65
Q

Retention

A

Our ability to retain a representation of others behaviour in memory.
- Ability to pull up important information later and act on it is vital to observational learning

66
Q

Production processes

A

Our ability to actually perform the actions we observe.

- Further practice of the learned behaviour = improvement and skill advancement

67
Q

Motivation

A

Our need for the actions we witness and their usefulness to us.
- Observing reinforcement and punishment = motivate us to perform/ not perform behaviour

68
Q

Bobo Doll Experiment

A
  • Aim: to investigate the effects of observational learning on aggressive behaviour
  • Year: 1961
  • Theorist: Albert Bandura
  • Sample: Young children between 3 and 6
  • IV= Modelled behaviour towards doll
  • DV= Aggressive behaviour towards doll
  • Experiment conditions:
    ~ controlled setting
    ~ two experimental groups exposed to aggressive model
    ~ control group not exposed
    ~ groups left alone in room
    ~ children saw an unknown adult model act aggressively towards an inflatable clown. the Childs subsequent behaviour was evaluated for aggressive behaviour
  • Ethics involved:
    ~ vulnerable groups
    ~ designed/taught to act aggressively
    ~ emotional issues created
  • Conclusion: children exposed to aggressive models reproduced a good deal of aggression resembling that of the models.

Psychology (6 decks)

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