Introduction To Psychology Flashcards
Independent variable and dependent variable
Independent - variable is that the experimenter can manipulate or vary in some way.
Dependent - variable that is used to observe and measure the effects of the independent variable.
Informed Consent
Procedures involved in the research must be explained to people and they must be given written consent prior to the study.
Objective data + examples
Data based on measurements of a participants response that can be directly observed and verified by the researcher.
Examples: heart rate, IQ score, behaviour counts
Subjective data + examples
Data determined by the research participants that the researcher cannot directly verify and therefore be certain of their accuracy.
Quantitative examples: responses on checklists, rating scales, questionnaires.
Qualitative examples: content analysis of focus group statements
Define psychology
The scientific study of how people think, feel and behave and the factors which influence these.
Define Hypothesis
A testable prediction about the relationship between at least two events, characteristics or variables.
Voluntary Participant
Participation must be voluntary and it must be ensured that no coercion or pressure is felt to particpate.
Right to withdraw
People must know they are free to withdraw at any time without any negative consequences.
Confidentiality
Participants privacy must be protected and no details about them or their individual results can be disclosed (ID Numbers)
Debriefing
After the investigation, it is essential that people receive an explanation of the study and are helped to overcome any negative effects (counselling).
Accurate reporting
Results must be reported accurately.
Professional conduct
Researchers must behave in a professional way.
Vulnerable groups
Special care and consideration must be taken for vulnerable groups (children, animals, mentally ill).
What is content analysis?
Process used called coding which analyses large amounts of qualitative data and reduces it into fewer categories.
Process of content analysis
- Careful reading of all the responses
- Identifying, naming and sorting core themes within the data
- Identifying sub-themes
- Noting the frequency with which these occur
- Looking for patterns in the responses
Steps followed for Delphi technique (7)
1 - Recruitment of group members
2 - Construction and distribution of a questionnaire
3 - First circulation and administration of the questionnaire
4 - Collation and categorising of results found
5 - Second circulation and administration of the questionnaire
6 - Collation of results
7 - Summary of findings
External validity
whether conclusions drawn from the results are applicable in other situations.
Face validity
whether a measure appears as though it would measure what it is designed to measure.
Limitations of a small/ unrepresentative sample
- Representativeness: Sample must be accurate representation of population interest. If sample is not large/diverse then not valid to generalise population.
- Statistical power: Small sample means higher chance of existing differences between groups. Larger Sample = Greater statistical power (less bias) = Convincing evidence
Small SD leads to …….
High validity and less variability
When is it better to use mean or median?
Mean - large sets of scores
Median - outliers are present
main features of experimental design
- random allocation
- manipulation of the independent variable
- control of other variables
main features of quantitative observational design
- uses pre-existing variables of groups
- independent variable varies naturally
- used for when experiments are not possible, ethical or too costly
main features of qualitative design
- methods produce data in comprehensive verbal and written form
- do not seek to test hypothesis
- good for investigating opinions and perceptions
main features of focus group
- group discussion led by a leader
- participants discuss, interact, seek and share information on a specific topic
- free response questions
main features of delphi technique
- questionaries used to collect data about opinions from a groups of experts in a field
- no meeting required, information in writing
- summarised information is sent back to participants and further questionaries are developed
social desirability
tendency of some respondents to report an answer in a way they believe to be more socially acceptable than their true answer
validity
whether a measurement tool actually measures what it is supposed to measure.
variability
a term used to refer how scattered or spread out scores are from the central score.
extraneous variables + types
any variable, apart from the independent variable, that can cause a change in the dependent variable and therefore affect the results of an experiment in an unwanted way. (participant, experimenter, situation)
reliability
the extent to which an experiment, test or measuring procedure yields the same result from repeated trials.
random allocation
participants are assigned randomly into groups to ensure the groups are as similar as possible. the participants are just as likely to be in the experimental group as the control group.
manipulation of the Independent variable
the researcher manipulates the independent variable, while keeping all other variables constant to test its affect on the dependent variable.
experimental design + advantages/disadvantages
an investigation design used to test whether one variable influences or causes a change in another variable.
advantages: research is replicable, control of extraneous variables, allows conclusions about cause and effect
disadvantages: artificial results, unethical/impractical, extraneous variables may decrease validity
quantitative observational design + advantages/disadvantages
an investigation design in which the researcher collects quantitative data based on pre-exisiting criteria and variables.
advantages: allow variables to be investigated that would be unethical/impossible/too costly in experiment
disadvantages: does not allow conclusions about cause and effect (lack of random allocation)
qualitative design + advantages/disadvantages
an investigation design that collects qualitative results
advantages: useful for investigating attitudes/opinions/experiences, avoids ethical problems
disadvantages: results cannot be generalised to other groups, not useful in testing hypothesis, often a small sample
focus group + advantages/disadvantages
a group interview technique that obtains data through discussion between research participants in a group setting
advantages: gain info that cannot be obtained from questionnaires, spontaneity (respondents speak because of genuine feelings not because question requires answer), snowballing (comments trigger a series of responses from other participants)
disadvantages: people may dominate discussion, observer presence may influence behaviour, people may not feel comfortable to share
Delphi technique advantages/disadvantages
a research method that uses self-administered questionnaires to obtain the opinions of experts in a field of interest
advantages: expert opinion (accurate information), convenient, not influenced by other participants
disadvantages: often forces consensus, extremely time consuming