Learning 2 Flashcards
Memory
ESR
The mental processes that enable the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
Encoding Storage Retrieval
Sensory Memory
Brief storage of sensory information for continuity in perceptions.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Temporary storage with limited capacity and duration.
Working Memory
Temporarily holds and manipulates information for cognitive tasks.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Relatively permanent storage of vast information.
Encoding
The process of converting sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory.
Storage
The process of maintaining encoded information in memory over time.
Retrieval
The process of bringing stored information back into conscious awareness.
Serial Position Effect
Tendency to remember the first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list more effectively.
Chunking
Organizing information into meaningful units to enhance memory.
Proactive Interference
Past learning interferes with recalling recently learned information.
Retroactive Interference
New learning impairs recalling previously learned information.
Amnesia
A condition characterized by significant memory loss.
Explicit Memory
Conscious, intentional recollection of information (declarative memory).
Implicit Memory
Unconscious memory influencing behavior without awareness (non-declarative memory).
Episodic Memory
Memory for specific events or experiences, a type of declarative memory.
Semantic Memory
Memory for general knowledge and concepts, a type of declarative memory.
Flashbulb Memory
Exceptionally vivid memory of emotionally significant events.
Source Memory
Remembering the origin of information.
Retrospective Memory
Memory for past events, experiences, or information.
Prospective Memory
Memory for future intentions.
Cued Recall
Memory retrieval with cues aiding recall.
Free Recall
Recalling information in any order without specific cues.
State-Dependent Memory
Recalling information better in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding.
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
Feeling on the verge of recalling information but not quite able to do so.
Encoding Specificity Principle
Effective retrieval occurs in a similar context to encoding.
Spaced Repetition
Reviewing information at increasing intervals over time for optimal learning.
Memory Reconstruction
The process of rebuilding memories during retrieval, subject to distortion.
Misinformation Effect
Incorporation of misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
Levels of Processing
The depth at which information is processed determines its ease of retrieval.
Learning
The process of acquiring new knowledge or behaviors through experience.
Adapting to the Environment
Adjusting behavior to fit the demands of the environment.
Classical Conditioning
Associating one stimulus with another to produce a learned response.
Pavlov’s Pioneering Research
Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs, demonstrating classical conditioning.
Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning
Learning through consequences, involving rewards and punishments.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Antecedent Conditions in Operant Conditioning
Identifying when to respond based on environmental cues.
Consequences in Operant Conditioning
Determining how to respond based on rewards or punishments.
Biological Constraints in Conditioning
Evolutionary factors that influence learning and behavior.
Observational Learning
Learning by watching and imitating others.
Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura’s theory emphasizing the role of cognitive processes in observational learning.
Crossroads of Conditioning
Exploring the intersection of biological factors, cognition, and conditioning.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Patterns governing when and how often reinforcement occurs.
Escape and Avoidance Conditioning
Learning to escape or avoid aversive stimuli.
Behavioral Addictions
Understanding and addressing addictive behaviors through behavioral principles.
Hero Rats Detect Landmines
An application of operant conditioning using rats to detect landmines.
Delayed Reinforcers
The power and challenges of reinforcement delayed in time.
Shaping and Chaining
Gradual shaping of complex behaviors through reinforcement.
Generalization and Discrimination
The phenomena of responding to stimuli similar or different from the learned stimulus.
Sensitization
An increase in responsiveness or sensitivity to a repeated or novel stimulus, often resulting in an amplified response.
Habituation
A decrease in responsiveness or sensitivity to a repeated or continuous stimulus, leading to a diminished response over time.
UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus)
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior conditioning.
UCR (Unconditioned Response)
An unlearned, innate response to the unconditioned stimulus.
CS (Conditioned Stimulus)
A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to evoke a conditioned response.
CR (Conditioned Response)
The learned response to the conditioned stimulus, which occurs after the stimulus has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
Acquisition
The initial stage in classical or operant conditioning when an association is formed between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus or between a behavior and its consequence.
Extinction
The diminishing of a learned response when the conditioned stimulus (CS) or the reinforcer is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) or the reinforcer.
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR) after a pause or rest period.
Generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) with the same conditioned response (CR).
Discrimination
The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), leading to a selective conditioned response (CR).
Little Albert Experiment
A classical conditioning experiment conducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner in 1920, where a young boy (Little Albert) was conditioned to fear a white rat through the pairing of the rat with a loud, frightening noise.
Operant Behavior
Voluntary behaviors that an organism emits to produce a desirable outcome or avoid an undesirable one, often associated with operant conditioning.
Consequences
The outcomes or results of a behavior, which can be reinforcing (increasing the likelihood of the behavior) or punishing (decreasing the likelihood of the behavior).
Positive Reinforcement
The presentation of a desirable stimulus following a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.
Positive Punishment
The presentation of an aversive stimulus following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.
Negative Reinforcement
The removal of an aversive stimulus following a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.
Negative Punishment
The removal of a desirable stimulus following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.
Shaping
The process of gradually molding or reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired behavior.
Primary Reinforcer
An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as food or water, that satisfies a biological need.
Secondary Reinforcer
A learned or conditioned reinforcer that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer or other established reinforcer.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs, leading to rapid learning but also rapid extinction when reinforcement stops.
Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedule
Reinforcing a behavior after a specific number of occurrences, promoting a high response rate.
Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule
Reinforcing a behavior after an unpredictable number of occurrences, also promoting a high response rate.
Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedule
Reinforcing a behavior after a specific amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement, resulting in a moderate response rate.
Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule
Reinforcing a behavior after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement, also resulting in a moderate response rate.
