learning

Question 1

what is classical conditioning

Answer 1

a form of learning where an existing reflex response is elicited by the repeated pairing of 2 stimuli

Question 2

define:
- neutral response
- unconditioned stimulus
- unconditioned response
- conditioned stimulus
- conditioned response

Answer 2

neutral stimulus: a stimulus that on its own doesn’t elicit a particular response

unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus with the inherent ability to elicit a reflex response

unconditioned response: the reflexive reaction to a specific unconditioned stimulus

conditioned: stimulus: a stimulus that elicits a particular response due to learning

conditioned response: a reflex response elicited by a previous neutral stimulus as a consequence of of learning

Question 3

define:
stimulus generalisation
stimulus discrimination
extinction
spontaneous recovery

Answer 3

stimulus generalisation: when a stimulus similar to the CS elicits the same response as the CS

stimulus discrimination: when a stimulus does not elicit the CR because it differs from the original stimulus.

extinction: when repeated presentation of the CS on it own ceases to elicit a response, as there is no longer an association between the CS and the US

spontaneous recovery: the sudden reappearance of a previously extinct CR after the US has been absent for some time.

Question 4

Pavlov’s dog aim, method and procedure

Answer 4

Aim: to investigate classical conditioning in dogs.

method
subjects: dogs
materials: meat powder, a bell, and a pavlovian apparatus.
iv: bell, food or both
dv: times dogs salivated and amount of saliva produced.

procedure
dogs placed in harnesses with tube in cheek to collect saliva to measure. Bell (NS) was rung next to dog and salivation did not occur. Dog was then given meat power (UCS) leading to salivation (UCR). Bell then rung just before giving dog meat powder then repeated. Then when bell rung and salivation occurred. Bell becomes CS and salivation becomes CR

Question 5

Pavlov’s dog contribution and limitations

Answer 5

contributions: pavlov impacted the understanding of learning processes by presenting classical conditioning as an undiscovered form of learning. The study provided a link between physiological and psychological processes and provided insights as to their interaction in the production of learning behaviours.

limitations: there is an inability to generalise the results from the dogs to humans. The dogs were exposed to unpleasant stimuli during the experiments, causing physical and psychological harm.

Question 6

little Albert aim, method and procedure

Answer 6

Aim: to assess whether a child can be conditioned to feel fear through simultaneous presentation of a white rat and loud noise (hammer hitting metal bar). If a fear response is successfully elicited, to determine whether this emotional response can be extended to similar stimuli.

method
participant: 11 moth old baby

materials: white rat, rabbit, seal skin coat, Santa Claus mask, a metal pole and a hammer.

Iv: exposure to various stimuli and the pairing of stimuli.

Dv: the observed emotional emotional and behavioural responses displayed by Albert.

procedure: Albert on mattress on floor and white rat was placed in-front. Rat didn’t elicit response (NS). from then on every time Albert reaches for rat bar is struck. loud noise (UCS) causes Albert fear (UCR). Rat becomes CS and fear becomes CR.

Question 7

key findings, contributions, limitations and strengths little Albert

Answer 7

key findings: Albert was conditioned to feel fear from the sight of rat after multiple pairings of loud noise and him reaching out. Emotional transfers from the white rat to the seal skin coat and Santa Claus mask occurred due to similarity of the stimulus.

Contributions: experiment provided a clear demonstration of how classical conditioning can be used to elicit a fear response resulting in further research into formation of phobias and development of treatment.

The ethical concerns led to widespread debate and discussion about how research should be conducted in particular gaining informed consent especially from vulnerable people.

criticisms: Albert was psychologically harmed and the mother gave consent but was not informed of the extent of the procedure and risks.

Question 8

define operant conditioning

Answer 8

a type of learning whereby the consequence of behaviour determines whether they will be repeated or not

Question 9

three phase model of operant conditioning

Answer 9

Antecedent: internal and external conditions present immediately prior to a particular response.
Behaviour: the observed behaviour resulting from the antecedent
Consequence: the outcome of the behaviour.

Question 10

reinforcement and punishment types

Answer 10

positive punishment: addition of stimuli that decreases likelihood of behaviour repeating.
positive reinforcement: the addition of a stimuli that increases likelihood of the behaviour repeating.
negative punishment: the removal of stimuli that decrease the likelihood of the behaviour repeating.
negative reinforcement: the removal of stimuli that increases the likelihood of behaviour repeating.

Question 11

law of effect
aim
method
procedure

Answer 11

aim: to examine the influence reinforcement had on the behaviour of cats seeking to escape from a puzzle box in order to each food

method
subject: 13 cats
materials: puzzle boxes, food for cats, and clock for time keeping.
Iv: number of times cats placed in box
Dv: Time taken for them to escape from the puzzle boxes.

procedure: cats placed in puzzle box and fish placed by box. Thorndike used a range of puzzle boxes each with different ways of opening. He repeatedly timed how long it took for the cats to get out.

Question 12

Law of effect key findings, contributions and criticisms

Answer 12

key findings: cats worked out how to escape through trial and error. Once placed back in the box cats made conscious decision to escape via mechanism. The choice demonstrates positive operant conditioning. Cats got food when pressing lever resulting in increase of likelihood of lever pressing. The second time cats were placed in the box the time taken to get out reduced drastically.

contribution: Thorndikes research with the cats formed foundation on which theorists built their understanding of operant conditioning on.

criticisms: Thorndikes findings are based on an animal model of trial and error learning and reinforcement of behaviour. This simplified concept of learning can’t be generalised to humans.

Experiment could not be replicated due to ethical concerns as hungry cats in boxes could be distressing.

Question 13

schedules of reinforcement

Answer 13

fixed ratio: reinforcement takes place after set number of responses
fixed interval: reinforcement takes place at fixed time time intervals.
variable ratio: when reinforcement takes place after an unpredictable number of responses
variable interval: when reinforcement takes place at irregular time intervals.

Question 14

Skinner box
aim
method
procedure

Answer 14

aim: to demonstrate the process of operant conditioning in pigeons

subject: 8 pigeons
materials: experimental cage with attached timer and food hopper and bird feed.
Iv: time interval at which food was released.
Dv: observed behaviours of pigeons

procedure: pigeons fed less to increase hunger then each pigeon was placed into cage for few minutes each day. Timer was programmed to present food to pigeon at set intervals via a hopper tipped down.

the intervals between food would change but hopper would be lowered for 5 seconds every time.

Question 15

Skinner box
contributions
limitations
key findings

Answer 15

key findings:
- operant conditioning was found in 6 of 8 pigeons with each of them being conditioned to form a different behaviour (what was being preformed when given food)
- shorter intervals between food release was more effective than longer intervals specifically 15 second intervals.

contributions: the study demonstrates how animals can develop superstitious (accidentally reinforced) behaviours. A cause and effect relationship is not required for the development of conditioned behaviour.

criticisms: the pigeons were starved until they weighed 25% less of their original weight resulting in ethical concerns. Results can’t be generalised to humans.

Question 16

social learning theory

Answer 16

where the learner watches a model, notices the consequences of their behaviour, and then decides wether they want to imitate the behaviour.

Question 17

social learning theory process

Answer 17

attention: learner needs to find model interesting enough to pay attention to them.

retention: the learner needs to be able to remember the models observed behaviour, this relies on the cognitive level of the learner

reproduction: the learner needs the physical and cognitive abilities to reproduce the behaviour observed.

motivation: the learner requires an incentive and reason for repeating the modelled behaviour.

reinforcement: if the learner expects the behaviour to be reinforced, they are more likely to reproduce the modelled behaviour. May be done through vicarious reinforcement.

Question 18

strengths and limitations of social learning theory

Answer 18

strengths: at times it doesn’t make sense to learn via trial and error alone and observational learning is highly useful or even the only method of learning. There is only so far that operant conditioning can go when it comes to learning

limitations: biological factors such as genetics, brain development, hormonal changes and neurotransmitter functions effect on behaviour is minimally acknowledged.

social learning theory doesn’t account for all behaviours preformed as there are times a suitable model isn’t available or when there is no model at all.

Question 19

bobo doll experiment
- aim
- participants
- variables

Answer 19

Aim: to determine wether children who observe an adult an adult being aggressively will imitate the aggressive behaviour.

participants: 36 of both boys and girls aged 3-4 selected via convenience sampling from the childcare centre at Stanford university.

materials: bobo doll, peg board, dart gun, cars, behaviour checklist, clock, ball, tea set, bears and craft items.

IV: exposure of children to aggressive adult models vs non-aggressive adult models
DV: observed aggressive behaviour in the children recorded every 5 seconds for 20 minutes.

Question 20

bobo doll procedure

Answer 20

procedure: children randomly allocated into 3 groups (control, aggressive model and non aggressive model). children in control group didn’t participate in first stage (not exposed to model). Children in other groups were taken into experimental room and told they could do arts and craft while the model would be in the opposite corner of the room with toys. half of the children observed a model of opposite sex and same sex. Children in the aggressive model condition observed the model behaving aggressively toward the bobo doll. Standardised actions were preformed by the model (hitting it on the head with mallet, sitting on it and punching nose, throwing it in air and kicking around room). between these actions set statements were spoken (pow, sock him in the nose, he keeps coming back for more, he sure is a tough fella). The non aggressive model played with other toys instead.

stage 2: After 10 minutes of exposure the experimenter took the child to a second room with desirable toys but told they are for other children once child started playing and told there were toys in the adjoining room for them. Frustrating the children for aggressive arousal.

stage 3: the adjoining room contained the bobo doll, mallet, dart gun, tea set, peg board, ball and bears. The room was set up same for all children and all groups participated. The experimenter worked quietly in the room. Each child observed for 20 mins through 1 way glass and their behaviour was scored against a set of predetermined criteria.

Question 21

key findings, strengths and limitations bobo

Answer 21

key findings: children who observed the aggressive model were more likely to mimic the physical and verbal actions of the aggressive model when the model wasn’t present compared to the children who watched the non aggressive model. These findings support bandoras social learning theory that children learn the modelled actions of other people via observational mediating processes.

The boys imitated more physically aggressive behaviour than the girls, although the girls imitated a similar amount of verbal aggression as the boys.

More aggression from those who observed aggression in same sex model than children who observed opposite sex model.

contribution: home television became popular when this experiment happened so Bandura’s experiment provided a framework from which research grew into when studying the effects of violence on tv on children’s behaviours.

Previous research showed children imitated behaviour displayed by adult models when in the presence on the model. This study showed that observational learning occurs in differing situations such as when not in the same as when model was originally observed or when model is not present.

limitations: the study was preformed in a laboratory setting (not typical of real world situation) resulting in low external validity.

Children in aggressive model condition may have experienced a degree of psychological harm if they had not been previously exposed to aggressive behaviour.

Question 22

systematic desensitisation

Answer 22

Type of therapy that combines relaxation techniques with gradual exposure to overcome a phobia. The 3 steps are:
- together therapist and client make a fear hierarchy of scenarios involving the feared stimuli that progresses from least to most distressing.
- client taught relaxation techniques
- client is exposed to stimuli and uses relaxation techniques until comfortable then moves up list.

benefits: exposure can include visualisations of scenarios involving the feared stimulus through in vitro exposures eliminating some of the practical issues that come with organising and accessing real life exposure scenarios

continuation of the therapy is likely due to clients high level of control over exposures

limitations: Exposures relying on visualisations are not suitable for clients who have difficulty imagining.

the underlying cause is not addressed.

Question 23

token economy

Answer 23

behaviour modification technique based on operant conditioning principles whereby a symbolic reinforcer is used to encourage a particular behaviour

secondary reinforcer: the symbolic tokens used to motivate desired behaviour

primary reinforcer: the tangible reward

benefits: it is a versatile behaviour modification technique as it can be customised to suit the varying needs of individuals. (reward and tokens can be customised depending on what motivates individual).

The transparency of the process is beneficial to both participants and administrators who can easily track process and determine when primary and secondary reinforcers are given.

disadvantages: the reinforced behaviour relies on extrinsic motivation so once the token economy ceases so does the behaviour

People may stop participating from motivation loss due to satiation (being full) of both secondary and primary reinforcers.