Learning Flashcards
What is learning
A relatively permanent change in how we think, feel, and behave as a result of experience
What are the 3 major ways in which we learn
- Classical conditioning, 2. Operant conditioning, 3. Observational learning
What does the term conditioning mean
to form associations
what is classical conditioning
We learn to associate 2 events of stimuli. We learn that one event signals the arrival of another event. Allows us to prepare ourselves.
Who is Pavlov and what is his major experiment
Researched classical conditioning. His experiment is related to “pavlovs dogs” in terms of making dogs salivate to the sound of a bell
What are psychic secretions
a biological secretion that is not warranted. ex// salivation to a sound, it has nothing to do with digestion
What is an unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response
No learning is required. Placing food in the dogs mouth will cause him to salivate. The food is the unconditioned stimulus and the salivation is a natural and reflective response to the food, making it the unconditioned response.
What is a neutral stimulus
A stimulus that doesnt affect the subject. Ex// ringing a bell would not normally cause the dog to salivate
What is conditioned stimulus and conditioned response
A stimulus that wouldnt normally arouse a response, that now arouses a response, is a conditioned stimulus. The conditioned response is the response that would not normally have happened. Ex// the dogs salivating is the unconditioned response to the unconditioned stimulus (bell).
What is higher-order conditioning
using the conditioned stimulus to produce a second-level response. Ex// using the bell to train the dog to salivate at a red triangle
What is acquisition
The process in which higher-order conditioning takes place.
What is respondent behavior?
A response that occurs in the presence of a stimulus.
How does frequency affect classical conditioning
The more often we show the subject a stimuli and response, we more often they associate the two.
What is operant conditioning?
Learning a behavior by associating it with its consequences.
How does timing affect classical conditioning?
timing matters. As soon as we flash the conditioned stimulus, we have to give them the unconditioned stimulus for them to make an association. Ex// we must give the dog food immediately after ringing bell
What is a fundamental principle?
A fundamental principle in operant condition is that behaviour is controlled by its consequences.
For example: If a behaviour produces a desired consequence, we’re more likely to repeat it. On the other hand, if a behaviour an undesirable consequence, we are less likely to repeat it.
What is the law of effect?
When a behaviour produces an undesirable or desirable consequence, we are less or more likely to repeat it.
Who is Thorndike?
He is the one who stipulated the law of effect and started the research on operant conditioning.
How does order of presentation affect classical conditioning?
we must sound the bell first and then give the dog food. This is because the bell announces the arrival of food. We cannot mix these two up.
Who is Skinner?
His name is linked and associated with operant conditioning.
What are the ABC’s in “learning”?
A = Antecedent
B = Behaviour
C = Consequence
What is an extinction procedure
We preform conditioned stimulus, but dont preform unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, dog learns that food (unconditioned stimulus) isn’t coming, so he stops his conditioned response (doesn’t salivate cause he knows the food isn’t coming)
What is a reinforcant?
Reinforcer is a consequence of a behaviour that makes the behaviour more likely repeat in the future.
What are the 2 major types of reinforcer?
Positive and negative.
What is a positive reinforcer?
When we do a behaviour, it produces a consequence such that we’re going to get/recieve something pleasant.
A negative reinforcer is likely to:
Likely to increase the probability that the behaviour will occure again.
What is spontaneous recovery
We preformed a successful extinction procedure, but randomly and out of the blue,without any retraining whatsoever, we ring the bell, and the dog salivate. However, without any further training, this behaviour will go away.
What are the two forms of negative reinforcers?
Escape and Avoidance.
What is the form of negative reinforcer where you prevent something from happening before it gets to you?
Avoidance.
What is the form of negative reinforcer where you take away something that is already there?
Escape.
What is stimulus generalization
When someone is accustomed to one stimulus, they generalize it to all others. Ex// we train a dog to salivate at One bell sound, but he starts salivating at all other bell sounds too
What are primary reinforcers?
These are reinforcers that are naturally reinforcing; no learning is required.
What are secondary (conditioned) reinforcers?
Learning is required. Those reinforcers are NOT naturally reinforcing. We learn through experience to appreciate them.
Why can stimulus generalization be bad
because one bad incident with a factor can make a person have a negative reaction to other similar factors. ex// one bad experience w a cop makes it so that he hates all other cops
What are immediate reinforcers?
We do the behaviour and immediately, or shortly after, we are reinforced.
What are delayed reinforcers?
We do the bevhaviour but have to wait for the reinforcement.
What is a continuous reinforcer?
Every single time the behaviour takes place, it is reinforced; without exception.
What is stimulus discrimination
Instead of generalizing, you do the opposite. Ex// One dog bites you, and you’re ONLY afraid of that dog; you’re NOT
afraid of other dogs.
A continuous reinforcer is good for:
teaching a new behaviour.
What are the two types of intermittent reinforcers?
Ratio and interval.
In terms of cognitive processes, what is one thing that modern researchers disagree with pavlov on?
Pavlov believed that if we want to study classical condition, we do not need to study cognitive processes or take them into consideration.
According to modern
researchers, you MUST take cognitive processes and take them into considerations
What is ratio (the type of intermittent reinforcer)?
The number of responses that determine when the behaviour is going to be reinforced.
What is interval (the type of intermittent reinforcer)?
It is the passage of time that will determine when a behaviour is going to be reinforced.
What are the two types of ratio?
Fixed and variable.
In terms of biological processes, what is one thing that modern researchers disagree with pavlov on
Pavlov believed that long as we follow the rules of classical conditioning, we can teach animals anything.
According to modern researchers, we can teach a lot. However, there are certain things
that we cannot teach because the organism is not biologically prepared to learn it.
What is a variable ratio?
A very specific number of behaviours must occur before reinforcement takes place.
What is a fixed ratio?
The number of responses that must occur in order for reinforcement will take place will vary or change.
Who is John Watson
the researcher behind the objective study.
Fixed ratio produces…
the second highest level of responses.
What are the two types of intervals?
Fixed and variable.
What is a fixed interval?
A very specific amount of time must go by for the desired behaviour to take place (be reinforced).
What is a variable interval?
The amount of time that must go by before reinforcing the behaviour differs and varies.
How did the rat experiment prove that animals will only learn what they are biologically prepared for.
Radiation = Nausea
Light + Radiation = nausea
Light = no nausea; no aversion
Sugared water + Radiation = nausea
Sugared water = nausea/ aversion
A fixed interval produces…
the lowest level of responses.
A variable interval produces…
the third lowest level of responses.
What are the two types of punishment?
Positive and negative.
What is positive punishment?
We do a behaviour and as a consequence, something unpleasant is going to be added.
i.e. A spank (yes mommy)
What is negative punishment?
We do a behaviour and as a consequence, something that we desire is going to be removed or taken away.
i.e. Phone taken away
What is the definition of a punishment?
We do a behaviour and it produces a consequence such that we are less likely to repeat the behaviour in the future.
What is the definition of ‘shaping behaviors’?
Reinforcing successively closer approximation of a behaviour until the correct behaviour is displayed.
What is the definition of operant extinction?
When we don’t want a behaviour to repeat, or reduce it significantly, we use operant extinction. We stop reinforcing the behaviour of interest.
Example: You have a child who swears all the time and you don’t want him to swear anymore. We need to identify why he is swearing. You realize that he is swearing because he is trying to get attention. So now, when the child swears, you don’t give any reaction at all (as if no one is there); this has to be done consistently.
What is an extinction burst?
During the extinction procedure, extinction burst is most likely to take place. This means the situation will get worse before it gets better. The behaviour is going to intensify.
Who is Tolman?
Tolman is considered to be the father of cognitive psychology. He is the one who started critizising some of Skinner’s ideas, and this started the ball rolling for cognitive psychology to be brought up again.
What is behaviourism?
When behaviour dominated in psychology. there was little to no research on cognitive processes, mind, consciousness, etc.
Tolman challenged Skinner by saying that…
sometimes learning can take place without any reinforcement.
What is latent learning?
We aquire knowledge without any reinforcement. This knowledge remains hidden and unseen until we have a reason and motivation to display it.
What is a cognitive map?
It is a mental map that you have in your mind. (Example: knowing where your home is from school without using a GPS)
What is social learning?
We observe the social world around us. We see what is being punished, what’s being rewarded, and we adjust our behaviours accordingly.
We seemed to be ________ _________ to learn via observation.
biologically prepared
One piece of evidence of social learning is that…
infants (humans or chimpanzees) start to imitate facial expressions very early in life.
Another piece of evidence is _______ ________.
Highly specialized neurons founds in different parts of the brain and they’re linked to empathy, learning, and they activate when we’re perfoming a behaviour. Most importantly, they activate when we watch someone else perform a behaviour.
According to Bandura, in order to immitate the behaviour, 4 things must be present:
- Attention
- Memory
- Motor skills
- Motivation
What is objective study
we can take complex psychological studies,
such as learning, and you can study them objectively and observatory.
what is introspection
How psychology used to be: Subjects will observe their own mental processes and observe them
