Language and Gender - Theory Flashcards
Theories and Theorists
Deborah Tannen’s Difference Theory
The Six Contrasts:
-Status vs Support
-Independence vs Intimacy
-Advice vs Understanding
-Information vs Feelings
-Orders vs Proposals
-Conflict vs Compromise
Theory of Markedness
Theory stating that terms are either marked or unmarked, marked forms indicate the gender of a person. Usually indicated by a suffix.
Geoffrey Leech’s 1968 Suffix Theory
The use of the suffixes ‘-ess’ or ‘-ine’ in language refering to females. Suggests they are inferior to men.
Julia Stanley’s 1977 Insults Theory
Claims there are 26 promiscuous names for men, and 220 words for women.
Hines’ 1994 Insults Theory
Discusses terms of address for women as metaphors for desserts (sugar, sweetie).
Muriel Shulz’ 1975 Insults Theory
Suggests words used in association with women tend to become derogatory. Also called SEMANTIC DEGROGATION OF WOMEN and LEXICAL ASSYMETRY.
Order of Presidence
When the male term comes before the female term.
Patronising Terms
Female pronouns and determiners used to refer to inanimate objects. Suggests that women are as inferior as objects or can be possessions.
Jennifer Coates 1989 Difference Approach
Suggests all female talk is cooperative. However, argued that these patterns were not found in mixed-gender talks as evidence of different socio-cultural expectations.
Zimmerman and West Gender Dominance Theory
-Analysed both mixed-sex and same-sex conversations.
-Found men were responsible for 96% of the interruptions in mixed-sex conversations. -Concluded that men dominate and manoeuvre the conversation for their own purposes.
Counter Arguments for Zimmerman West Dominance Theory
-The test group consisted of people who were white, middle-class and and all under 30.
Penelope Eckert Gender and Sociolinguistic Theory
-Argued against the idea that language is based solely on gender.
-Believed that ethnographic studies were more important in understanding language patterns.
Robin Lackoff’s 1975 Deficit Theory
-Believe women’s language was in deficit to men’s because of the use of empty adjectives, tag questions and weak expletives.
-Claimed women’s language lacked authority.
-Suggested that socialisation played an important role in assuring that female language remains less assertive.
Counter-Arguments to Lackoff’s Gender Deficit Theory
-Was based on data from a limited focus group, all participants were white, educated, middle-class Americans.
-Study is outdated.
-Suggested some participants had a history of domestic abuse.
-Observer Affect.
Deborah Cameron’s 2008 Denial/Diversity Theory
-Criticised the idea that there are innate differences in male and female speech (Book: Mars and Venus Myth)
-Believed theorists looked for examples to prove their own beliefs.
Jane Pilkington 1992 Difference Approach
-Found women in same-sex conversations were more cooperative than men in all-male talks.
-Concluded that women aim for ‘Positive Politeness Strategies’
-Found men tended to be less complimentary and supportive.
Positive Politeness Strategies
-Used to avoid giving offence and to be more friendly.
Done through: Juxtaposing criticism with compliments, establishing common ground, nicknames and honorifics, tag questions, slang, in-group jargon and special discourse markers.
Koenradd Kuiper’s 1991 All-Male Talk Theory
-Observed an all-male rugby team.
-Found they were more likely to pay less attention to the need to save face and used insults to express solidarity.
Geoffrey Beatie’s 1980s Dominance Theory
(Opposes Dominance Theory)
-Recorded 10 hours of total discussions and totalled 557 interruptions.
-Determined that men and women interrupted at the same frequency.
Otto Jesperson’s 1922 Deficit Theory
-Believed men’s language was considered standard, whereas women’s was deficient.
Believed women, talked more, have smaller vocabularies, use more false starts, exaggerate, use too many adjectives/adverbs, are emotional and are more indirect.
Counter Argument To Otto Jesperson’s Deficit Theory
-This theory is outdated by over 100 years, life is very different for women now.
-Some of his beliefs are context dependent, and there may not be any need for ‘large vocabularies’ or ‘empty adjectives’.
Janet Holmes 1992 Theory
-Suggested that tag questions are used as a device to maintain discussions or to be polite.
Betty Dubois and Isobel Crouch 1975 Theory
-Found that men used more tag questions, but were not considered to be less competent.
William O’Barr and Bowman Atkins 1950s Theory
(Opposes Lackoff’s Gender Theory)
Observed language in a court room and discovered many of Lackoff’s features did occur in women’s language, but also in men’s of lower class.
