Lab Final 1190 Flashcards
Functions of blood
- transports substances such as oxygen and carbon dioxide
- provides protection against diseases using wbcs
- helps maintain homeostasis of bodily fluids
What is hemopoiesis
process of developing formed elements (rbcs, wbcs, platelets)
Hemopoiesis in different stages
- in the embryo, it occurs in the yolk sac
- in the fetus it occurs in the spleen, liver, thymus and lymph nodes
- in adults it occurs in the bone marrow
Description of RBCS
- 99%
- no nucleus
-biconcave shape - contain the protein hemoglobin which binds to 4 iron atoms
- binds with oxygen and carbon dioxide
Description of WBCs
- 1%
- have a nucleus
- can travel to all parts of the body in blood and lymph
- can move out of blood vessels by emigration to the site of infection or injury
Description of platelets
- fragments of megakaryocytes
- form platelet plugs to prevent blood loss from ruptured vessels
- secrete chemicals from their granules that promote blood clotting
Different types of WBCs (leukocytes)
- eosinophils
- basophils
- neutrophils
- lymphocytes
- monocytes
Eosinophils description and function
- look like to dots (lobes) in the cell
- 2-4%
- granules in cytoplasm stain red
- 2x larger than rbcs
- destroy certain parasitic worms
- combat effects of histamine in allergic reactions
- phagocytize antigen antibody complexes
Basophils description and function
- 0.5-1%
- bunch of granules that are stained blue
- intensifies overall inflammatory response by liberating heparin, histamine and serotonin in allergic reactions
Neutrophils description and function
- 60-70%
- looks like sausages connected
- granules in cytoplasm don’t stain
- nucleus has 2-7 lobes
- phagocytosis: destruction of bacteria with lysosome, defensins and strong oxidants
Lymphocytes description and function
- 20-25%
- large round nucleus that fills most of cell besides small portion
- 3 types but not distinguishable: T cell, B cell, Natural killer cells
- Mediates immune responses, including antigen antibody reactions
- B cells; develop into plasmocytes and secrete antibodies
- T cells: attack invading viruses
- Natural killer cells: attack microbes and tumor cells
Monocytes description and function
- 3-8%
- Horseshoe shaped
- Phagocytosis after transforming into fixed or wandering macrophages
Sickle cell anemia cause and appearance
- cells look spread and sickle shaped
- caused by substitution of an amino acid in the hemoglobin protein of rbcs
- when O2 content of blood is low, the sick cell hemoglobin can deform the rbc into a sickle shaped
Chronic lymphocytic anemia cause and appearance
- a bunch of purple/blue stained cells
- a cancer of the lymphatic tissue in which lymphocytes do not follow the normal developmental process
- they do not differentiate fully
- they do not acquire the ability to destroy bacteria
- they do not die on schedule
- they appear like normal mature cells
Erythroblastosis fetalis or Hemolytic disease of the newborn
- spread out pink red blood cells
- occurs when Rh - mother has second child and passes antibodies onto Rh+ onto baby causing agglutination and destruction of fetal erythrocytes
African sleeping disease
- looks like purple hairs
- Tsetse fly bites human and the trypanosoma produces nectrotic damage to all cells they come in contact with
Hematocrit
- measurement of red blood cells in a whole blood sample
- heaviest (rbcs) cells are forced to the bottom
- the plasma rises to the top
- white blood cells create a thin layer on top of the rbcs called buffy coat
What is hematocrit used to evaluate and diagnose
- can be used to diagnose polycythemia vera or anemia
- used to evaluate dehydration and effectievness of blood tranfusions
Conditions that would increase hematocrit
- polycythemia vera
- congenital heart disease
Conditions that would decrease hematocrit
- anemia
- hemolysis
- hemorrhage
How is blood type based
- based on what antigens you have on the surface of erythrocytes
- antibodies appear a few months after birth
What is the source of antibody-mediated immune response
B cell antibody production
What is agglutination
- causes red blood cells to clump and intravascular hemolysis occurs
What is blood clotting
- blood clotting is the process by which blood turns from a liquid to gel to prevent easy bleeding and loss of blood
Universal donor
Type O -
Universal recipient
AB+
Type A blood will agglutinate with…
anti-A antibody serum
Hypoxemia vs hypoxia
- hypoxemia is insufficient amount of oxygen at capillary level
- hypoxia is is insufficient amount of oxygen at tissue level
Where is the heart located
mediastinum in the thoracic cavity
Pericardial membrane layers
- fibrous pericardium: tough outer surface
- Serous pericardium: contains parietal and visceral pericardium
Parietal pericardium is fused with…
fibrous pericardium
Visceral pericardium is…
the epicardium and lines the heart itself
3 layers of the heart
- Epicardium: outer most layer of the heart
- Myocardium: middle layer made of cardiac muscle tissue
- Endocardium: inner surface and valves are covered by endocardium a thin layer of connective tissue
- layer of epithelium in the heart is called endothelium
Anterior interventricular sulcus
- a shallow groove on the anterior surface of the heart that marks the external boundary between the right and left ventricles on the anterior aspect of the heart
Coronary arteries
- some of the blood from the aorta flows into the coronary arteries which supply blood to the heart wall
- run along myocardium of the heart
Cardiac veins
deoxygenated blood from the capillaries moves to the veins
Coronary sinus
Major coronary vein that is located on the rear side of the heart and cardiac veins drain into this. Coronary sinus drains into the right atrium of the heart
Pulmonary trunk + arteries
takes deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle into the lungs
Ascending aorta
- carries oxygen rich blood from the heart to the rest of the aorta.
- 2 main arteries branch from this; into left and right coronary arteries
Aortic arch
Helps distribute blood to the head and upper extremities via the brachiocephalic trunk, the left common carotid and the left subclavian artery
Ligamentum arteriosum
remnant of ductus arteriosus in fetal structures which served to shunt blood away from the lungs
- no useful purpose in adults
Chordae tendineae
- strong fibrous connections between the valve leaflets and the papillary muscles
- when papillary muscles contract the fibers become taught to close the valve
Papillary muscles
- pillar like muscles within the cavity of ventricles and attach to their walls
- when ventricles relax the papillary muscles are relaxed
- when ventricles contract the papillary muscles contract to close the valves
Fossa ovalis
remnant of the foramen ovale of the fetus, which was an opening in the interatrial septum (closes soon after birth)
- prevents blood flow across the interatrial septum
Trabeculae carnae
raised bundles of cardiac muscle fibers
function is similar to papillary muscles
Function of intercalated discs:
- hold adjacent cells together by providing strong sites of adhesion
- permit ions to pass between cells and allow the tissue to transmit electrical impulses rapidly
Difference between the 4 heart valves
- AV valves have leaflets
- Semilunar valves have cusps
Where does serous fluid come from
Serous fluid is secreted by the pericardium and fills the pericardial cavity (space between visceral and parietal pericardium) to reduce friction as the heart expands and contracts
How do veins keep blood moving against gravity
1: valves; which only permit one way flow
2: skeletal muscle pump: compression of blood vessel by skeletal muscle contract squeezes blood towards heart
3: Respiratory movement: upon inhalation the diaphragm compresses the abdominal veins causing blood to move to the decompressed thoracic veins. After inhalation; exhalation, the valves prevent backward flow and keep the blood moving towards the heart
Why do arteries have thick walls
to help provide pressure and the smooth muscle in the thick walls allow them to regulate their diameter to maintain blood pressure and regulate blood flow
What is the function of the cerebral arterial circle?
provide collateral blood flow to the anterior and posterior circulations of the brain and protects against ischemia in the event of blood vessel damage or blood clot
The celiac trunk branches into a number of arteries. Name 5 structures or organs it supplies blood to?
- spleen
- digestive tract: esophagus, stomach, duodenum
- liver
- pancreas
- gallbladder
What is the source of the hepatic portal system
venous system that returns blood from the digestive tract and spleen enter the liver first where raw nutrients are processed before blood returns to the heart
3 main functions of the lymphatic system
- drains interstitial fluid from tissues back into the bloodstream
- lymph nodes filter out and destroy foreign substances that have entered the body
- facilitation and absorption of dietary fats from the digestive tract to the bloodstream
Where is the lymph returned to the blood
the right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct drain into the subclavian veins which bring plasma back to the heart through the superior vena cava
Lacteals location + function
- intestinal villi
- carry dietary lipids into lymphatic vessels and ultimately into the blood
cisterna chyli location and function
- thoracic duct begins at a dilation called cisterna chyli anterior to the second lumbar vertebrae
- receives lymph plasma from the right and left lumbar trunks and from the intestinal trunk
Thymus location + function
- located in the mediastinum between the sternum and the aorta
- responsible for production and maturation of immune cells
Spleen location + function
- left hypochondriac region between the stomach and the diaphragm
- controls the level of blood cells and removes old or damaged red blood cells
Aggregated lymphatic follicles
- found in the intestine
- transport luminal antigens and bacteria and can be considered as immune sensors of the intestine
Appendix location + function
- lower right part of abdomen
- contain aggregations of lymphoid nodules. Mediate T cell and B cell immune responses
The upper respiratory tract
nose and pharynx
The lower respiratory tract
larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
2 bones that form the floor of the nasal cavity
maxilla and palatine
2 bones that form the roof of the nasal cavity
nasal, ethmoid, sphenoid, frontal
anterior nasal cavity is line by…
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
inferior nasal cavity is lined by…
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
2 functions of the chonchae and nasal meatuses during inhalation
- increase surface area
- warm, humidify and filter the air as it enters the body
name a function of the conchae and meatuses in exhalation
prevents dehydration by trapping water droplets during exhalation
Choanae (internal nares)
located in the posterior segment of the nasal cavity and open into the nasopharynx
nasopharynx
lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium and move mucus toward inferior part of nasopharynx
Oropharynx
intermediate portion of pharynx. serves as a commone passageway for food, air and drinks. palatine and lingual tonsils are found in the oropharynx
laryngopharynx
line with nonkeratinized stratified columnar epithelium
begins at hyoid bone and opens into esophagus posteriorly and larynx anteriorly
fauces
arched opening at the back of the mouth leading to the pharynx
stimulates the surface and deep receptors within the pharynx and base of tongue when swallowing.
Larynx
connects laryngopharynx to the trachea and contains vocal cords
- vocal cords are membranes attached to ligaments which produce sound when the vocal cords vibrate
Thyroid cartilage
consists of 2 fused plates of hyaline cartilage that form the anterior wall of the larynx and give it a triangular shape
present in both males and females, more prominent in males (adams apple)
function to protect the larynx
cricoid cartilage
a ring of hyaline cartilage that forms the inferior wall of the larynx
- functions to maintain airway patency, forms part of the larynx and provides attachment point for key muscles, ligaments and cartilage
Hyoid bone
serves as an attachment structure for the tongue and muscles on the floor of the oral cavity.
Epiglottis
protects the ability to breathe by protecting your larynx
it keeps food and liquid from entering your respiratory system by covering your trachea
Glottis
produces vibrations that are passed onto the larynx to produce sound. opens and closes during vibration
Rima glottidis
potential space between vocal folds. may be opened or closed secondary to adduction or abduction of vocal folds. Primary channel for airflow to the larynx
Vestibular folds
protections of the more delicate vocal folds that lie beneath. used for production of deep tones, screaming and throat singing
vocal folds
used for the production of sound such as speech
carina
highly innervated mucous membrane which is one of the most sensitive areas of the entire larynx and trachea for triggering cough reflex when objects get inhaled into the trachea
main/primary bronchus
trachea divides into the right main bronchus which goes to the right lung and the left main bronchus which goes to the left lung
- carries oxygen from trachea to the lungs
lobar/secondary bronchi
the bronchus divide further into lobar bronchi ( one for each lobe; right lung has 3, left lung has 2)
function to deliver air to lobes of the lungs
Terminal bronchiole
branch from lobar bronchioles and connect them to respiratory bronchioles. they branch to ensure that air is distributed to all parts of the lungs and can be used by alveoli for gas exchange
Cartilage rings and plates
c shaped cartilaginous rings rinforce anterior and lateral sides of the trachea to protect and maintain the airway open
Respiratory bronchioles
terminal bronchioles divide even further into respiratory bronchioles to deliver air to a diffuse network of around 300 million alveoli in the lungs
Alveolar ducts
serve as passageways connective alveolar sacs and respiratory bronchioles
- thus alveolar ducts function to collect and direct the oxygen entering the alveoli and carbon dioxide exiting the lungs
Alveolar sac
the air sacs in your lungs take up oxygen as you breathe
Alveolus
singular of alveoli. each alveolus is cup shaped with very thin walls. surrounded by networks of blood vessels called capillaries
Pulmonary arteriole
carry oxygen poor blood away from the heart and to the lungs
pulmonary venule
transfers freshly oxygenated blood to the heart
Name the 6 muscles involved in pulmonary ventilation
- diaphragm
- external intercostals
- sternocleidomastoid
- internal intercostals
- rectus abdominis
- pectoralis minor
What muscles are involved in passive ventilation (not forced)
- diaphragm
- external intercostals
Which muscles are involved in forced inhalation
pectoralis minor
Which muscles are involved in forced exhalation
- internal intercostals
- rectus abdominis
- sternocleidomastoid
Function of external intercostals
- contraction elevates the ribs and increases dimensions of the thoracic cavity, resulting in inhalation
- relaxation depresses the ribs and decreases dimensions of the thoracic cavity, resulting in exhalation
Function of sternocleidomastoid in pulmonary ventilation
elevates sternum during forced exhalation
Function of pectoralis minor in pulmonary ventilation
elevates the ribs during forced exhalation
Function of rectus abdominis in pulmonary ventilation
forced exhalation
Function of internal intercostals during pulmonary ventilation
further decreases dimensions of the thoracic cavity during forced exhalation
Tidal volume
the amount of air inhaled and exhaled during a single breath at rest
Dead space
the air that remains in the areas not lined by simple squamous epithelium and is unavailable for gas exchange
4 areas of dead space
- mouth
- nose
- trachea
- bronchus
Inspiratory reserve volume
the amount of air that can be inhaled in excess of normal inhalation
Expiratory reserve volume
amount of air that can be exhaled in excess of normal exhalation
residual volume
the amount of air remaining in the alveoli and airways after a forceful exhalation
vital capacity
the sum of TV + IRV + ERV and will be measured as the amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximal inhalation
Numbers to memorize
- Total lung capacity is; 6000mL
- tidal volume: 500mL
- vital capacity: 4800 mL
- ERV: 1200mL
What are the 4 major physiological functions of the respiratory system
- removes wastes and gasses such as CO2 from the body
- delivers oxygen to the bloodstream to be distributed to the rest of the body
- warms air inhaled and matches the body temperature
- allows you to smell and talk
What is meant by internal and external respiration
- external: the exchange of gasses with the external environment and occurs in the alveoli of the lungs
- internal: the exchange of gasses with the internal environment at the tissue level and uses capillaries
