Lab Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

structural division of respiratory system

A

1) upper: nasal cavity, nose, pharynx, larynx
2) lower: trachea, bronchi, bronchioles

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2
Q

functional division of respiratory system

A

1) conducting: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, terminal bronchioles
2) respiratory: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli

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3
Q

conducting portion features

A
  • lined by respiratory mucosa
  • function: filter, warm and moisten air
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4
Q

respiratory mucosa

A

1) pseudostratified ciliated (motile to sweep mucus and trapped contaminants towards pharynx for swallowing or expulsion) columnar epithelium with goblet cells (produce mucus) + stem cells
2) lamina propria: loose CT with BVs to warm air + mucous glands

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5
Q

respiratory portion features

A
  • respiratory bronchiole branches from terminal bronchiole, then into alveolar ducts that lead into alveolar sac (made up of alveoli)
  • function: where gas exchange takes place
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6
Q

nasal cavity features

A
  • extends anteriorly from nares (nostrils) to choanae posteriorly (continuous with nasopharynx)
  • functions: conduct air, filter/warm/humidify air, sense odorants
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7
Q

nasal septum

A
  • divides nose into left and right parts
  • formed by perpendicular plate of ethmoid and vomer
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8
Q

nasal cavity subdivision

A
  • superior, middle and inferior conchae separate cavity into air passages (meatuses)
  • curved shape keeps air in cavity for longer (swirling around)
  • sinuses also connect with nasal cavity
  • everything surrounded by mucosa
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9
Q

lateral wall of nasal cavity

A
  • superior and middle nasal conchae (ethmoid)
  • lacrimal bone
  • inferior nasal concha
  • maxilla
  • perpendicular plate of palatine
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10
Q

medial wall of nasal cavity

A
  • nasal septum: perpendicular plate of ethmoid, vomer and septal cartilage (hyaline)
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11
Q

roof of nasal cavity

A
  • cribriform plate of ethmoid
  • frontal bone
  • nasal bone
  • sphenoid bone
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12
Q

floor of nasal cavity

A
  • horizonal plate of palatine
  • palatine process of maxilla
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13
Q

paranasal sinuses

A
  • lighten mass of skull, increase surface area of respiratory mucosa, create turbulence
  • communicate with cavity via ducts
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14
Q

paranasal sinus ducts

A

1) above superior meatus: sphenoidal sinus
2) into superior meatus: posterior ethmoidal air cells
3) into middle meatus: frontal sinus, maxillary sinus
4) into inferior meatus: nasolacrimal duct

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15
Q

olfaction

A
  • superior part of nasal cavity has olfactory epithelium
  • turbulence brings odorants into contact with epithelium, where they dissolve in mucus and stimulate sensory neurons (binding to specific receptors = depolarization)
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16
Q

olfactory organs

A

1) olfactory epithelium: specialized pseudostratified ciliated columnar
2) underlying lamina propria

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17
Q

cells of olfactory epithelium

A

1) olfactory sensory neurons: bipolar, dendrites form knob that projects into nasal cavity
2) supporting cells: mechanical and metabolic support to receptor cells
3) basal cells: replace olfactory sensory neurons, decrease with age

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18
Q

olfactory knob

A
  • contains non-motile cilia with olfactory receptors on the surface
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19
Q

olfactory pathway

A

two neurons:
1) from olfactory epithelium, form CN I and pass through cribriform plate
2) in olfactory bulb, travel in olfactory tract to primary olfactory cortex (temporal lobe), hypothalamus, and limbic system
*thalamus not involved! only exception out of the senses

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20
Q

oral cavity function

A
  • analysis of food
  • mechanical processing
  • lubrication (saliva)
  • limited digestion
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21
Q

oral cavity characteristics

A
  • lined by oral mucosa: stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium
  • buccal fat pads and buccinator muscles support mucosa of cheeks
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22
Q

oral cavity features

A

1) hard and soft palate
2) palatoglossal arch: extends directly from uvula
3) palatopharyngeal arch: posterior to 2)
4) palatine tonsil: between arches
5) uvula: extends from soft palate
6) superior labial, lingual, inferior labial frenulum
7) fauces: opening to pharynx
8) oral vestibule: space between cheek/lips and teeth
9) gingiva: gums

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23
Q

oral cavity boundaries

A

1) roof: hard (maxilla and palatine) and soft palate
2) floor: tongue
3) anterior: teeth and lips with orbicularis orbis
4) posterior: palatoglossal arch/folds, palatine tonsil, palatopharyngeal arch/golds

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24
Q

orbicularis orbis

A
  • sphincter muscle continuous around the mouth
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25
Q

soft palate function

A
  • moves up to close off nasopharynx during swallowing
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26
Q

uvula function

A
  • prevents food from entering oropharynx too soon
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27
Q

tongue muscles

A

1) extrinsic: pass to tongue from bony attachments (to external structures), function to position tongue for speech and swallowing
2) intrinsic: divided by left and right halves by median sagittal septum, within tongue in different orientations, function to alter shape of tongue

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28
Q

extrinsic tongue muscles

A

1) hyoglossus (3): attach to hyoid bone
2) palatoglossus: palatine
3) genioglossus: chin (genu of mandible)
4) styloglossus: styloid process of temporal bone

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29
Q

innervation of tongue

A

1) motor: majority by CN XII, palatoglossus by CN X
2) posterior tongue: general sensory and special (taste) by CN IX
3) anterior tongue: special by CN VII and general by CN V3

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30
Q

CN XII lesion

A
  • dysarthria: difficulty speaking
  • dysphagia: difficulty swallowing
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31
Q

floor of the mouth

A
  • mandible
  • hyoid
  • suprahyoid muscles
  • salivary glands
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32
Q

suprahyoid muscles

A
  • elevate hyoid and larynx when swallowing
    1) digastric (anterior belly, “two bellies”)
    2) stylohyoid (styloid process
    3) mylohyoid (mandible)
    4) geniohyoid (chin)
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33
Q

infrahyoid muscles

A
  • below hyoid
  • not part of floor of mouth
    1) omohyoid: scapula to hyoid
    2) sternohyoid: sternum to hyoid
    3) sternothyroid: sternum to thyroid cartilage
    4) thyrohyoid: thyroid cartilage to hyoid
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34
Q

salivary glands

A
  • three pairs: parotid, sublingual, submandibular
  • multicellular exocrine
  • enclosed by dense fibrous CT
  • produce/secrete saliva under autonomic control
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35
Q

parotid gland

A
  • duct opens into oral vestibule (by second maxillary molar)
  • largest salivary gland
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36
Q

sublingual gland

A
  • below tongue
  • numerous ducts open into floor of oral cavity (lateral to that of submandibular gland)
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37
Q

submandibular gland

A
  • below mandible
  • ducts open into floor of oral cavity lateral to lingual frenulum
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38
Q

temporomandibular joint (TMJ)

A
  • synovial joint
  • mandibular fossa (temporal bone) articulates with head of condylar process (mandible)
  • articular surfaces separated by fibrocartilage disc
  • loose capsule = highly mobile and easily dislocated
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39
Q

TMJ movements

A

1) hinge: elevation (close mouth) and depression (open mouth)
2) gliding: retraction (tuck chin), protrusion/protraction (stick chin out), lateral grinding

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40
Q

lockjaw

A
  • dislocated TMJ
  • jaw stuck open
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41
Q

muscles of mastication

A
  • produce TMJ movements
  • innervated by CN V3
    1) temporalis: elevation and retraction
    2) masseter: elevation
    3) lateral pterygoid: protrusion, side to side movement, opening jaw (mostly by gravity)
    4) medial pterygoid: elevation, side to side movement
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42
Q

pterygoid muscle attachments

A
  • to lateral pterygoid plate
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43
Q

pharynx

A
  • common space used by respiratory and digestive systems
  • muscular tube extending from base of skull to upper esophageal sphincter
  • contracts reflexively during swallowing
  • stratified squamous nonkeratinized
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44
Q

pharynx innervation

A
  • motor: CN X
  • sensory: CN IX
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45
Q

pharynx parts

A

1) nasopharynx: pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids), opening of pharyngotympanic tubes (connection to auditory tube)
2) oropharynx: palatine and lingual tonsils, first line of defense
3) laryngopharynx: opens into larynx (air) and esophagus (food)

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46
Q

cricoid caritlage

A

forms part of larynx (laryngopharynx)

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47
Q

pharyngeal muscles

A

1) circular: constrict during swallowing (ordered), overlap each other
- superior, middle and inferior pharyngeal constrictor
2) longitudinal:
- stylopharyngeus (styloid process)
- palatopharyngeus (soft palate)
- salpingopharyngeus (pharyngotympanic tube)

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48
Q

pharyngeal muscle innervation

A
  • CN X for all except stylopharyngeus (CN IX)
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49
Q

larynx features

A
  • laryngopharynx opens anterior into larynx and posteriorly to esophagus
  • inferiorly into trachea
  • function: passage of air, vocalization and prevents food from entering trachea (epiglottis covers larynx)
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50
Q

larynx hyoid connection

A
  • suspended from hyoid bone by thyrohyoid membrane
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51
Q

extrinsic muscles of larynx

A
  • suprahyoid: elevate hyoid bone (and larynx)
  • infrahyoid: depress
  • during swallowing and speaking
  • specifically during swallowing: elevated larynx bends epiglottis over laryngeal inlet
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52
Q

larynx cartilage

A
  • held in place by ligaments and muscles
  • three unpaired frameworks:
    1) thyroid cartilage: anterior laryngeal prominence (“adam’s apple”), incomplete posteriorly (superior and inferior horn)
    2) cricoid cartilage: complete ring, inferior to 1)
    3) epiglottis
  • paired:
    1) arytenoid cartilages: associated with corniculate and cuneiform cartilages
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53
Q

larynx cartilage connecting membranes

A

1) thyrohyoid membrane: dense CT connecting larynx to hyoid
2) cricothyroid membrane: connects thyroid and cricoid cartilage

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54
Q

larynx intrinsic ligaments

A
  • not the same as bone-bone ligaments
  • extend between cartilage
    1) vestibular ligament: corniculate and thyroid cartilage, along with mucosa forms vestibular folds to protect vocal folds
    2) vocal ligament: arytenoid and thyroid, elastic CT, along with mucosa forms vocal folds (avascular, produce sound)
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55
Q

rima glottidis

A

space between vocal folds

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56
Q

epithelium in the larynx

A
  • above vocal folds: stratified squamous nonkeratinized
  • below: respiratory epithelium
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57
Q

sound production (phonation)

A
  • adductor intrinsic muscles adduct arytenoid cartilages
  • rima glottidis decreases in size –> air passing through vibrates folds to produce sound waves
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58
Q

vocal folds during respiration

A
  • abductors abduct arytenoid cartilages
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59
Q

tensors and relaxers

A
  • tiny muscles that adjust length of vocal ligaments by tilting thyroid cartilage
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60
Q

what affects sound production?

A

1) tone: approximation of vocal folds
2) pitch: anterior rocking of thyroid = more tension in vocal fold = higher pitch
3) volume: more air = more speed = louder voice
4) quality: vibration within larynx, pharynx, oral cavity, nasal cavity and nasal sinuses

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61
Q

what happens in whispering?

A
  • arytenoids are adducted, but not fully pulled medially
  • all but posterior portion of rima glottidis closed
  • more air passes through, vocal folds don’t vibrate as much and thus quieter pitch
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62
Q

thoracic cavity location

A

above diaphragm

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63
Q

abdominopelvic cavity location

A

below diaphragm

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64
Q

characteristics of body cavities

A
  • lined by serous membranes
  • do not open to the exterior
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65
Q

serous membrane layers

A

1) visceral layer: around organ
2) parietal layer

  • layers are continuous with each other
  • layers produce serous fluid (lubricant) that fills serous cavity between them
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66
Q

thoracic cavity subdivision

A

1) mediastinum: between pleural cavities, includes pericardial cavity with heart
2) right pleural cavity: right lung
3) left pleural cavity: left lung

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67
Q

mediastinum

A
  • sternum anterior, thoracic vertebrae posterior
  • bordered laterally by lungs
  • further divisions:
    1) posterior mediastinum: trachea, primary bronchi, esophagus, great vessels, loose areolar CT
    2) middle mediastinum: contains heart
    3) anterior mediastinum
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68
Q

tracheal rings

A
  • trachea surrounded by 15-20 tracheal rings (anterior, c-shaped) and muscle (posterior, in front of esophagus)
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69
Q

annular ligaments

A
  • join tracheal rings
  • elastic cartilage allows for flexibility
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70
Q

carina of trachea

A
  • bifurcation of trachea into right and left primary bronchi
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71
Q

branching of bronchial tree

A

1) trachea
2) primary bronchi: enter hilus of each lung, one per lung
3) lobar (secondary) bronchi: one per lung lobe
4) segmental (tertiary) bronchi: one per bronchopulmonary segment
5) bronchioles: each tertiary branches several times to form these
6) terminal bronchioles

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72
Q

trachea structure

A
  • connects larynx to primary bronchi
  • lined with respiratory mucosa
  • cartilage rings anteriorly
  • trachealis muscle (smooth) posteriorly: relaxes with SyNS stimulation for bronchodilation
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73
Q

layers of trachea epithelium

A

1) respiratory epithelium (mucosa)
2) lamina propria (mucosa)
3) seromucous glands in submucosa
4) perichondrium
5) hyaline cartilage ring

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74
Q

right/left lung lobes

A
  • right = superior, middle and inferior
  • left = superior and inferior
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75
Q

bronchopulmonary segments

A
  • 9-10 in each lung
  • each has tertiary bronchus
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76
Q

benefit of lung segmentation

A
  • diseased segments can be removed while preserving function of others
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77
Q

bronchi histology

A
  • respiratory mucosa with fewer goblet cells
  • amount of cartilage decreases moving through bronchi (inhibit gas exchange)
  • circular layer of smooth muscle appears in bronchi (can change size of tube, modulates SA)
  • lots of lymphocytes
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78
Q

bronchiole histology

A
  • epithelium becomes simple ciliated columnar/cuboidal, then simple cuboidal/low columnar (bronchiolar exocrine aka club cells)
  • no mucosal glands or cartilage
  • smaller, less circular lumen than bronchi
  • more smooth muscle (prominent bundles lead to distinct shape)
  • adjacent to blood vessels
  • surrounded by alveoli
  • lots of lymphocytes
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79
Q

respiratory portion branching

A

1) respiratory bronchioles: from terminal bronchioles, decreasing smooth muscle
2) alveolar ducts: no smooth muscle
3) alveolar sac: collections of alveoli
4) alveoli

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80
Q

pulmonary lobule

A
  • branches of pulmonary arteries form capillary beds around alveoli for gas exchange
  • pulmonary artery -> pulmonary arteriole -> pulmonary venules -> pulmonary vein -> heart
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81
Q

respiratory bronchiole histology

A
  • lined with bronchiolar exocrine cells
  • surrounded by few alveoli
  • subdivide into alveolar ducts with simple squamous epithelium
  • pulmonary arteries and veins visible
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82
Q

alveoli characteristics

A
  • site of gas exchange, resembles a pouch (open on one side to alveolar duct/sac)
  • between alveoli: interalveolar septa with fibroblasts, elastic (spongy) and reticular (maintain shape) fibers + pulmonary capillaries
  • two types of cells (pneumocytes) and macrophages
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83
Q

type I alveolar cells

A
  • numerous
  • form simple squamous epithelium
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84
Q

type II alveolar cells

A
  • rounded cells, vacuolated cytoplasm
  • not as numerous
  • secrete surface-active agent (surfactant) to decrease surface tension and maintain alveolar patency (sacs remain open)
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85
Q

alveolar macrophage

A
  • phagocytose particulate matter
  • contribute to black remnants on lungs (some in healthy, lots in smoker lungs)
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86
Q

blood-air barrier

A
  • respiratory membrane with:
    1) endothelium
    2) thin basement membrane
    3) alveolar epithelium
  • gas exchange is rapid due to thinness (~0.5 micrometer) of membrane and small, lipid-solubility of gases
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87
Q

alveoli histology

A
  • lots of empty space
  • type I cells: flat, little cytoplasm
  • type II: cuboidal/round
  • macrophages: darker spots, protrude into spaces
  • capillaries: contain RBCs
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88
Q

emphysema

A
  • damaged and permanently enlarged alveoli (destruction of elastic fibers in lungs)
  • breathlessness because air becomes trapped in lungs at the end of exhalation (can’t push out, gas exchange inhibited as well)
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89
Q

respiratory epithelium proximal to distal

A

1) trachea: pseudostratified ciliated columnar with goblet cells
2) bronchi: transition to simple columnar with cilia and few goblet cells
3) bronchioles: transition to simple cuboidal with or without cilia, exocrine cells appear as they branch
4) alveoli: type I/II alveolar cells

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90
Q

respiratory lamina propria proximal to distal

A

1) trachea: loose CT
2) bronchi: loose CT
3) bronchioles: thin or indistinct
4) alveoli: none

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91
Q

respiratory secretory cells proximal to distal

A

1) trachea: seromucous glands in submucosa
2) bronchi: seromucous glands in submucosa
3) bronchioles: bronchiolar exocrine cells
4) alveoli: type II alveolar cells

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92
Q

respiratory cartilage rings proximal to distal

A

1) trachea: c-shaped, joined by annular ligaments
2) bronchi: incomplete, irregular plates
3) bronchioles: none
4) alveoli: none

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93
Q

respiratory smooth muscle proximal to distal

A

1) trachea: trachealis (at free ends of cartilage)
2) bronchi: discontinuous layer, more prominent as bronchi branch
3) bronchioles: prominent, large layer –> thin, indistinct, small layer
4) alveoli: none

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94
Q

respiratory adventitia proximal to distal

A

1) trachea: loose CT
2) bronchi: loose CT
3) bronchioles: merges with submucosa
4) alveoli: none

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95
Q

pleura

A
  • serous membrane lining wall of pleural cavity and lungs
  • mesothelium: simple squamous epithelium attached to loose areolar CT
  • layers: parietal pleura, pleural cavity (small, with pleural fluid), visceral pleural
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96
Q

pleural cavity

A
  • contains transudate (pleural fluid) for lubrication and tension between membranes
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97
Q

pleural recesses

A
  • spaces left behind in pleural cavity to accommodate expansion of lungs during inhalation
    1) costodiaphragmatic recess: around costal edge of base of lung
    2) costomediastinal recess: extension of cavity between sternum and mediastinum
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98
Q

pleural effusion

A
  • excess fluid in pleural space, shows up as white on x-ray instead of black (empty air)
  • two types:
    1) transudative pleural effusion: caused by changes in hydrostatic pressure, leads to excess fluid
    2) exudative pleural effusion: inflammatory conditions, infection, lung injury or tumour, leads to excess fluid, protein and immune cells –> additional spaces in endothelial cells
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99
Q

lung structure

A
  • cone shape with apex above clavicle and base
  • lobes separated by deep fissures
  • right lung: superior, middle, inferior lobe
  • left lung: superior, inferior
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100
Q

lung lobe surfaces

A

1) costal: contact with ribs (anterior, lateral and posterior)
2) mediastinal: medial surface
3) diaphragmatic: base, close to diaphragm

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101
Q

lung fissures

A

1) horizontal: separates superior and middle (right lung)
2) oblique: separates middle and inferior (right) or superior and inferior (left)

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102
Q

root of the lung

A
  • contained in the hilus
  • consists of primary bronchi, pulmonary arteries, veins, nerves and lymphatics enclosed in CT
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103
Q

hilus arrangement in R/L lung

A
  • right: veins inferior, arteries anterior to primary bronchi
  • left: artery most superior, primary bronchus, veins inferior to other two
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104
Q

grooves and impressions in lung

A
  • right: posterior esophageal impression
  • left: posterior groove for aorta, anterior cardiac impression and cardiac notch
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105
Q

thorax bones

A
  • 12 pairs of ribs (flat bones) and costal cartilages
  • 12 thoracic vertebrae and intervertebral disks
  • sternum
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106
Q

sternum structure

A

1) manubrium: articulates with clavicles
2) body
3) xiphoid process

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107
Q

intercostal space

A

between ribs

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108
Q

costal margin

A

formed by bottom of rib cage

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109
Q

types of ribs

A

1) true ribs (1-7): attach directly to sternum via a costal cartilage
2) false ribs (8-12): attach indirectly (not their own costal cartilage to sternum OR lack attachment
3) (false) floating ribs (11-12): no anterior attachment or tubercular facets

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110
Q

typical rib structure

A

1) head: has two articular facets that articulate with body of thoracic vertebrae
2) neck
3) tubercle: has tubercular facet to articulate with transverse process of thoracic vertebra (corresponding)
4) angle
5) costal groove: internal aspect, protects blood vessels and nerves
5) body
6) costal cartilage (for most)

*applies to ribs 3-9

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111
Q

what permits movement of thoracic wall?

A

articulations of ribs and thoracic vertebrae (synovial joints)

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112
Q

superior/inferior thoracic aperture

A
  • superior: bordered by T1, 1st ribs and superior border of manubrium + contains trachea and blood vessels
  • inferior: bordered by T12, ribs 11/12, costal margins and xiphisternal joint + closed off by diaphragm
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113
Q

attachments of rib cage

A

1) jugular notch
2) clavicular notch: clavicle
3) sternal angle: manubrium and body articulate, forms protrusion
4) costal notches: attachment of costal cartilage
5) xiphisternal joint: body and xiphoid process articulate, has limited movement
6) diaphragm attachment

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114
Q

thoracic wall muscles

A
  • occupy and support intercostal spaces
  • overlap each other and fibers run in different directions for added strength

1) external intercostals: do not attach to sternum, fibers run inferiorly and anteriorly, elevate ribs during inhalation
2) internal intercostals: start from sternum, fibers run inferiorly and posteriorly, depress ribs during FORCED exhalation
3) innermost intercostals

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115
Q

costal groove

A
  • contains VAN (vein, artery, nerve –> superior to inferior)
  • between inner and innermost intercostals
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116
Q

arteries of thoracic wall

A

1) thoracic aorta
2) subclavian artery (branches off brachiocephalic)
3) internal thoracic arteries: anterior aspect inside thoracic wall, arises from 1)
4) anterior and posterior intercostal arteries: from 1) and 3), in costal groove, ant/pos anastomose with each other for collateral circulation
5) subcostal artery (last artery)

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117
Q

veins of thoracic wall

A

1) internal thoracic vein: drains blood anteriorly into brachiocephalic vein and superior vena caba
2) anterior and posterior intercostal veins: most (posterior) drain into azygos venous system
3) subcostal vein
4) azygos and hemiazygos veins: drain back and thoracoabdominal walls and viscera, pathway between SVC and IVC

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118
Q

azygos venous system

A

1) right intercostal veins drain into azygos
2) left intercostal veins drain into hemiazygos, then azygos
3) azygos drains into superior vena cava

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119
Q

lymphatic drainage in thoracic wall

A
  • lymphatics throughout drain thoracic wall into thoracic duct
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120
Q

inhalation mechanism

A
  • thoracic cavity dimensions and intrathoracic volume increases
  • draws air in because of pressure drop
  • structure of pleura and lungs enable this to occur: pleural fluid creates tension between membranes, inherent elasticity of lungs allow expansion to remain in contact with thoracic wall
  • diaphragm contracts (flattens)
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121
Q

exhalation mechanism

A
  • typically passive process: recoil of lungs and relaxation of muscles
  • intrathoracic volume decreases, expelling air out
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122
Q

movements of thoracic wall during inhalation

A
  • diaphragm (flattens) and external intercostals (elevates ribs and sternum) contract
  • vertical changes: diaphragm flattens
  • lateral changes: ribs elevated, thoracic cavity widens
  • anterior/posterior changes: inferior portion of sternum moves anteriorly
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123
Q

movements of thoracic wall during exhalation

A
  • passive process
  • vertical changes: diaphragm relaxes, moves up, thoracic cavity narrows
  • lateral changes: ribs depressed, thoracic cavity narrows
  • anterior-posterior changes: inferior portion of sternum moves posteriorly
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124
Q

diaphragm structure

A
  • forms floor of thoracic cavity
  • muscle fibers arranged radially and insert into central tendon
  • space for inferior vena cava, esophagus and aorta (posterior)
  • crura: attach diaphragm to lumbar vertebrae
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125
Q

diaphragm action and innervation

A
  • contraction increases vertical dimension of thoracic cavity
  • innervated by phrenic nerves (C3-C5)
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126
Q

structures that pass through diaphragm

A

1) internal vena cava: between right dome and pericardial sac
2) esophagus: behind pericardial sac, in front of thoracic vertebra
3) aorta: between thoracic vertebra and left dome

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127
Q

accessory muscles of respiration

A
  • attached to thoracic wall and could be involved in breathing
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128
Q

neural control of respiration

A
  • rate/depth of breathing matched with tissue oxygen and CO2 removal demands
  • controlled by brainstem nuclei (pons and medulla)

1) posterior respiratory group (medulla): efferent fibers control inspiration
2) anterior respiratory group (medulla): efferent fibers coordinate innervation of both inspiratory and expiratory muscles
3) CN IX/X (to medulla): modulate feedback based on input from baroreceptors and chemoreceptors
4) pontine respiratory group: receives higher level input (cerebral cortex, limbic system, hypothalamus), outputs to medulla to adjust respiratory pace –> some voluntary control

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129
Q

heart as a double pump

A
  • right side: conveys blood through pulmonary circuit
  • left side: conveys blood through systemic circuit
  • both sides at the same time
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130
Q

arteries vs veins

A

arteries carry blood away from heart, veins towards heart

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131
Q

heart chambers

A

two atria superior to two ventricles

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132
Q

heart position

A
  • left of midline in middle mediastinum
  • oblique angle to longitudinal axis of body (slightly rotated to left)
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133
Q

heart shape

A
  • base of heart = posterior surface
  • apex located in 5th intercostal space
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134
Q

pericardium

A
  • surrounds heart and roots of the great vessels
  • two parts: outer fibrous pericardium and inner serous pericardium (two layers)
  • function: stabilize position of heart and prevents overfilling (bc attached to other structures, ex. fibrous attached to diaphragm)
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135
Q

serous pericardium

A

1) visceral layer: attaches to heart
- potential space (pericardial cavity) containing pericardial fluid (lubrication) between layers
2) parietal layer: attaches to fibrous pericardium

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136
Q

components of heart wall

A

superficial to deep:
(parietal layer of serous pericardium: mesothelium, areolar CT and pericardial cavity)
1) epicardium (visceral layer of serous pericardium): mesothelium and areolar CT
2) myocardium: cardiac muscle tissue
3) endocardium: unique endothelium and areolar CT

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137
Q

heart surfaces

A

1) right pulmonary surface: formed by right atrium
2) anterior surface: majority right ventricle
3) left pulmonary surface: left ventricle
4) diaphragmatic surface

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138
Q

external heart sulci

A

1) coronary sulcus: between atria and ventricles, location of fibrous skeleton
2) anterior/posterior interventricular sulci: between ventricles, overlie interventricular septum

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139
Q

anterior external heart

A

1) right atrium
2) right auricle (flap)
3) right ventricle
4) left ventricle
5) left auricle

  • cannot see left atrium
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140
Q

posterior external heart

A

1) left atrium
2) right atrium
3) left ventricle
4) right ventricle

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141
Q

right heart input/output

A

input: deoxygenated blood to right atrium
1) superior vena cava: drains head and upper limbs
2) inferior vena cava: below diaphragm
3) coronary sinus: heart wall
output: from right ventricle
1) pulmonary trunk
2) continues to right and left pulmonary arteries –> lungs

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142
Q

left heart input/output

A

input: oxygenated blood to left atrium
1) right and left pulmonary veins (two on each side)
output: from left ventricle
1) ascending aorta
2) aortic arch
3) descending aorta

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143
Q

heart borders

A

1) right border: right atrium
2) left border: left ventricle
3) inferior border: mostly right ventricle, a little left ventricle

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144
Q

internal right atrium

A

1) input vessels: SVC, IVC, coronary sinus
2) interatrial septum
3) fossa ovalis: remnant of embryonic foramen ovale
4) pectinate muscles: create rough wall
5) crista terminalis: line dividing smooth and rough parts of atrium

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145
Q

embryonic foramen ovale

A
  • direct connection between right and left atrium
  • no need for pulmonary circulation as an embryo
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146
Q

internal right ventricle

A

1) right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid) cusps (3)
2) septomarginal trabecula: extend from septum, attach to papillary muscles and trabeculae carnea
3) pulmonary semilunar valve cusps
4) conus arteriosus

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147
Q

atrioventricular valve structures

A

1) cusps attach to chordae tendineae
2) attach to papillary muscles
3) trabeculae carneae: rough inner wall (no smooth parts in ventricle)

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148
Q

atrioventricular valve cusp function

A
  • like a parachute: chordae tendinae are strings attached to the papillary muscle (person) –> prevent cusps from everting
  • cusp pulled taut in a curved shape
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149
Q

semilunar valve cusp function

A
  • curved shape causes blood to pool in the closed cusps
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150
Q

internal left atrium

A

1) left atrioventricular valve (bicuspid or mitral) cusps (two)
2) interatrial septum: smooth wall
3) left auricle: lined with pectinate muscles (rough)

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151
Q

internal left ventricle

A

1) aortic semilunar valve cusps

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152
Q

aorta vs pulmonary trunk

A

aorta has openings of coronary arteries early on (oxygenated blood goes to heart first)

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153
Q

why is LV wall thicker than RV?

A
  • higher force needed to pump to entire body, not just lungs
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154
Q

valve primary function

A
  • ensure unidirectional flow of blood
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155
Q

fibrous skeleton of heart

A
  • structural foundation for heart valves
  • attachment for myocardium
  • electrical insulation of atrial myocardium from ventricular (precise coordination of contraction)
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156
Q

fibrous skeleton components

A

1) pulmonary fibrous ring (anterior): pulmonary semilunar valve
2) aortic fibrous ring (posterior): aortic semilunar valves
3) left atrioventricular fibrous ring
4) right atrioventricular fibrous ring

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157
Q

coronary vessels (arteries)

A

two major branches:
1) left coronary artery bifurcates almost immediately into circumflex artery and anterior interventricular artery
- circumflex: LA/LV
- anterior interventricular: 2/3 IV septum of LV, anterior wall of LV/RV, connects with posterior interventricular artery at apex
2) right coronary artery gives rise to right marginal artery and posterior interventricular artery, supplies RA/RV
- right marginal: RV
- posterior interventricular artery: posterior 1/3 of IV septum, posterior RV/LV

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158
Q

coronary vessels (veins)

A

1) great cardiac vein: drains areas supplied by anterior interventricular artery –> drain into coronary sinus
2) small and middle cardia veins: drains RCA area –> drain into coronary sinus
3) anterior cardiac vein: anterior RV –> drain directly into RA

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159
Q

recognizing coronary vessels

A
  • thick wall = aorta
  • thinner wall = pulmonary vein
  • big, dilated vessel near left side = coronary sinus
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160
Q

conducting system of heart

A

1) sinoatrial node (pacemaker): automatically depolarize, impulses travel through internodal pathways to…
2) atriovenricular node: impulse slows, atria contract (superior to inferior), fibrous skeleton insulates ventricles from atrial depolarization
3) atrioventricular bundle branches into…
4) L/R bundle branches: conduct impulse through interventricular septum, right bundle transmits to septomarginal trabecula
5) subendocardial plexus: impulse goes upwards from apex, distributed to ventricular myocardium

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161
Q

heart innervation

A
  • autonomic nervous system innervates both SA/AV nodes and myocardium via cardiac plexus
  • SNS: increase HR through NE release
  • PNS: decrease HR through Ach release (vagus nerve)
  • cardiac centers in medulla control based on input from baroreceptors and chemoreceptors
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162
Q

cardiac cycle

A

1) atrial systole: AV valves open, blood enters ventricles (relaxed)
2) atrial diastole: continues until start of next cycle
3) ventricular systole 1st phase: contraction closes AV valves (“lub”)
4) ventricular systole 2nd phase: ventricular BP rises, SL valves open
5) early ventricular diastole: ventricular BP drops until reverse blood flow closes SL valve (“dub”), passive atrial filling
6) late ventricular diastole: passive ventricular filling, all chambers relaxed

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163
Q

aortic valve regurgitation

A
  • aortic valve that does not fully close
  • blood leaks back through during ventricular diastole
  • enlarged LV wall to cope with increased afterload
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164
Q

pelvis structure

A

1) right and left hip bones (os coxae) joined anteriorly by pubic symphysis
2) sacrum (joins to hips by sacro-iliac joints)
3) coccyx

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165
Q

pelvis function

A

1) support visceral organs
2) attachment point for muscles
3) transfer upper body weight to lower limb
4) attach lower limb to axial skeleton

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166
Q

pelvic girdle

A
  • consists of left and right hip bones
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167
Q

hip bone structure

A
  • three separate bones:
    1) ilium (most superior)
    2) ischium
    3) pubis/pubic bone (anterior to ischium)
  • acetabulum: where bones fuse together around mid 20s, before separated by hyaline cartilage
  • obturator foramen: formed by 2/3, covered with fascia and muscle
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168
Q

ilium features

A

lateral surface:
1) iliac crest
2) ala
medial surface:
3) iliac fossa
4) arcuate line
for muscle attachment:
5) anterior superior iliac spine
6) anterior inferior iliac spine
7) posterior superior iliac spine
8) posterior inferior iliac spine
other:
9) greater sciatic notch: sciatic (largest nerve) passes through

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169
Q

ischium features

A

1) ischial tuberosity: “big bump” that are “sit” bones, hamstrings attach here –> lateral view
2) ischial spine: muscle attachment
3) lesser sciatic notch
4) ischial ramus

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170
Q

pubis features

A

1) pectineal line: medial view, continuous with arcuate line
2) superior pubic ramus
3) pubic tubercle: ligament attachment
4) body of pubis: between rami, forms pubic symphysis
5) inferior pubic ramus

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171
Q

ischiopubic ramus

A

inferior pubic ramus + ischial ramus

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172
Q

pelvic brim

A
  • formed by:
    1) sacral ala and promontory
    2) arcuate line
    3) pectineal line
    4) superior pubic ramus
    5) pubic symphysis
  • shaped differently in males and females (to accommodate childbirth
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173
Q

pelvic inlet

A

space enclosed by pelvic brim

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174
Q

pelvic outlet

A

space bordered by:
1) coccyx
2) ischial tuberosities
3) inferior border of pubic symphysis

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175
Q

true vs false pelvis

A
  • true = below pelvic brim, protects and contains pelvic viscera
  • false = above pelvic brim, encloses and protects lower abdominal viscera
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176
Q

pelvic diaphragm

A
  • aka pelvic floor
  • funnel-shaped sheet of muscle within pelvic outlet
  • formed by two major muscles and their fascia:
    1) coccygeus
    2) levator ani
  • muscles loop around urethra, vagina (if present) and anus –> controls urination and defecation
  • other functions: partitions true pelvis from perineum (contains external genitalia) and supports abdominopelvic viscera
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177
Q

levator ani

A
  • consists of three separate muscles
    1) puborectalis: ‘sling’ around rectum
    2) pubococcygeus: pubic bone to coccyx
    3) iliococcygeus: ilium to coccyx
  • elevate anus
  • torn/stretched in childbirth
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178
Q

coccygeus

A
  • attaches to coccyx
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179
Q

anterolateral abdominal wall

A
  • no bony reinforcements
  • consist of fascia, muscles and their aponeuroses (thickening of CT)
  • muscle fibers run at right and oblique angles to one another + overlap = increase strength
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180
Q

anterolateral abdominal wall muscles

A

(listed superficial to deep):
1) external oblique: fibers run inferomedially, same direction as external intercostals
2) rectus abdominis:
vertical and enclosed by rectus sheath
3) internal oblique: fibers run superomedially
4) transversus abdominis: fibers run anteromedially

1-3 = flat, muscular laterally + aponeurotic medially

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181
Q

linea alba

A
  • collagen fibers of anterolateral abdominal wall muscle aponeuroses interlace here
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182
Q

anterolateral abdominal wall muscles actions

A

1) stabilize vertebral column
2) compress abdominal contents
3) flexion of vertebral column (ex. sit-up motion)
4) rotation of vertebral column
5) lateral flexion of vertebral column

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183
Q

inguinal ligament

A
  • runs from anterior superior iliac spine to pubic tubercle
  • formed by lower border of external oblique
  • creates space where blood vessels and nerves pass through
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184
Q

rectus abdominis structure

A
  • extends from pubis to thoracic cage
  • segmented by three tendinous intersections: these sometimes don’t line up because walls develop independently and later fuse together
  • enclosed by rectus sheath
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185
Q

linea semilunaris

A
  • where tendons of the lateral abdominal muscles meet the sheath surrounding the rectus abdominis muscle
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186
Q

rectus abdominis action

A

1) flexion of vertebral column
2) compress abdominal viscera

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187
Q

rectus sheath

A
  • surrounds rectus abdominis
  • anterior layer formed by external oblique and some internal oblique aponeuroses
  • posterior layer formed by transversus abdominis and some internal oblique aponeuroses
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188
Q

arcuate line in anterolateral abdominal wall

A
  • posterior to rectus abdominis
  • marks transition on rectus sheath where all aponeurotic layers pass anteriorly
  • below line: fascia is thinner
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189
Q

posterior abdominal wall structures

A

1) some bones: lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, ilia, ribs 11/12
2) posterior abdominal wall muscles: attach to vertebrae
3) portion of diaphragm
4) kidneys, suprarenal glands and fascia: lie on top of the wall
5) fat, nerves, blood vessels

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190
Q

posterior abdominal wall muscles

A

1) diaphragm
2) transversus abdominis: forms belt around abdomen
3) quadratus lumborum: 4 sided, attached to lumbar vertebrae and 12th rib
4) iliacus: fills iliac fossa, continues to lower limbs
5) psoas major: attaches to lumbar vertebrae, continues to lower limbs (in front of 3))

*4/5 pass under the inguinal ligament

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191
Q

abdominal wall layers

A

1) skin
2) superficial fascia
3) muscles/vertebra
4) transversalis fascia: lines inside of abdominal wall, called renal fascia around kidneys
5) extraperitoneal (visceral) fat
6) peritoneum
7) peritoneal cavity

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192
Q

peritoneum

A
  • continuous serous membrane in peritoneal cavity that invests some viscera
  • two layers of mesothelium that secrete fluid:
    1) visceral
    2) peritoneal cavity: doesn’t actually contain organs!
    3) parietal
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193
Q

intraperitoneal organs

A
  • surrounded by visceral peritoneum
  • suspended by mesenteries to posterior abdominal wall
  • ex. stomach, spleen
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194
Q

retroperitoneal organs

A
  • develop posterior to peritoneal cavity
  • only partially covered by peritoneum
  • ex. kidneys, aorta, IVC, pancreas
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195
Q

arteries of posterior abdominal wall

A
  • branch from aorta
  • unpaired visceral branches:
    1) celiac trunk
    2) superior mesenteric artery
    3) inferior mesenteric artery
  • paired:
    4) suprarenal arteries
    5) renal arteries
    6) gonadal arteries
    7) lumbar arteries
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196
Q

veins of posterior abdominal wall

A
  • drain into inferior vena cava
  • unpaired:
    1) hepatic veins: drain liver (all digestive system blood goes to liver)
  • paired:
    2) suprarenal veins
    3) renal veins
    4) gonadal veins: left drains into left renal vein, right drains directly into IVC
    5) lumbar veins
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197
Q

digestive system function

A
  • mechanically and chemically break down food for absorption
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198
Q

digestive system organ groups

A

1) gastrointestinal tract: form continuous tube = mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
2) accessory digestive organs: connected to GI tract = teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

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199
Q

secondarily retroperitoneal organs

A
  • initially intraperitoneal
  • become attached to posterior body wall through development (part of peritoneum disintegrates)
  • ex. ascending and descending colon
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200
Q

mesenteries

A
  • double layer of peritoneum with intervening areolar CT
  • blood, lymph vessels, nerves sandwiched between
  • several types/names
  • function: support and stabilize intraperitoneal organs
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201
Q

mesentery examples

A

1) transverse mesocolon
2) mesentery proper: largest
3) sigmoid mesocolon: helps suspend part of colon

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202
Q

GI tract general layers

A

1) mucosa: protection, absorption, secretion
2) submucosa
3) muscularis externa
4) serosa or adventitia

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203
Q

GI mucosa

A

1) epithelium: varies based on tube function
2) lamina propria: areolar CT with mucosal glands, blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics
3) muscularis mucosae: smooth muscle, alters shape of lumen

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204
Q

GI submucosa

A
  • dense irregular or areolar CT
  • blood, lymphatics, submucosal plexus
  • some regions: lymphatic tissue and submucosal glands
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205
Q

GI muscularis externa

A
  • two layers of smooth muscle (except in esophagus and stomach): inner circular and external longitudinal
  • myenteric plexus located between layers
  • contraction of layers = segmentation and peristalsis
  • circular = compression, mixing, constricting diameter
  • longitudinal = shortens length of tube
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206
Q

GI adventitia/serosa

A
  • areolar CT
  • intraperitoneal organs = serosa
  • others = adventitia
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207
Q

peristalsis

A

1) contraction of circular muscles behind bolus
2) contraction of longitudinal muscles ahead of bolus
3) wave of contraction in circular muscle layer forces bolus forward

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208
Q

segmentation

A
  • primarily circular muscle layers
  • churn and mix contents in digestive tract
  • no net movement in particular direction
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209
Q

esophagus

A
  • muscular tube running through neck and posterior mediastinum
  • passes through muscular part of diaphragm via esophageal hiatus
  • 25cm x 2cm
  • secretes mucus (lubrication
  • transports swallowed materials from pharynx to stomach
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210
Q

esophagus layers

A

1) mucosa:
- stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium
- lamina propria: lymphatic nodules and esophageal cardiac glands
- thick muscularis mucosae
2) submucosa:
- dense irregular CT
- blood and lymphatics
- lots of elastic fibers (collapsed lumen), assist in closing tube
- submucosal glands
3) muscular layer:
- circular and longitudinal
- proximal to distal: 1/3 skeletal muscle, 1/3 both, 1/3 smooth
4) adventitia: adheres to posterior body wall

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211
Q

esophagus bolus path

A
  • passes through esophageal hiatus to portion located in peritoneal cavity
  • pass through lower esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter): thickening of circular layer
  • goes to stomach
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212
Q

gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)

A
  • lower esophageal sphincter fails to close adequately
  • HCl from stomach irritates esophageal wall
  • long-term: epithelium changes to simple columnar and scar tissues build up, changing function and narrowing lumen
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213
Q

stomach regions

A

1) fundus: dome shaped
2) cardia: transition zone between esophagus and stomach
3) body: majority
4) pyloric antrum: funnel-shaped

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214
Q

stomach structure

A
  • J-shaped, with four regions
  • lesser curvature: lesser omentum (mesentery) attachment
  • greater curvature: greater omentum
  • rugae (semipermanent folds) formed by mucosa and submucosa, accommodate expansion and filling of stomach
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215
Q

stomach muscularis externa

A
  • three layers:
    1) longitudinal
    2) circular
    3) oblique: additional layer to allow more effective mixing
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216
Q

stomach function

A
  • food (chyme) storage
  • mechanical/chemical digestion
  • hormone secretion
  • little absorption
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217
Q

pyloric sphincter

A
  • thickening of circular layer
  • regulates chyme movement from stomach to duodenum
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218
Q

stomach layers

A

1) mucosa:
- simple columnar epithelium
- mucous cells invaginate into lamina propria = gastric pits
- muscularis mucosae
2) submucosa:
- loose areolar CT with BVs, lymphatics
- no glands!
3) muscularis externa: 3 layers
4) serosa: loose areolar CT

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219
Q

gastric secretions

A

1) surface mucous and mucous neck cells: mucins, protects mucosa from acid and maintains acidic conditions
2) parietal cells: intrinsic factor (B12 absorption), HCl (denatures proteins, antibacterial, breaks down cell walls)
3) chief cells: pepsinogen (proenzyme –> pepsin with HCl), gastric lipase
4) G cells (enteroendocrine): gastrin into blood stream, stimulates parietal/chief cells and contractions

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220
Q

stomach secretory cell distribution

A
  • gastric pit: mucous cells
  • gastric gland: parietal, G, chief
  • chief cells more predominant at bottom of gland
  • G cells at bottom, not seen on H&E
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221
Q

parietal vs chief cells histology

A
  • parietal = large, central nucleus, eosinophilic
  • chief = small, basophilic (proteins)
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222
Q

small intestine function

A

most digestion and absorption

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223
Q

small intestine regions

A

1) duodenum (~25cm, shortest): mix chyme with exocrine secretions, proximally intraperitoneal (mobile) and rest secondarily retroperitoneal (anchored)
2) jejunum (2.5m): chemical digestion, nutrient absorption, intraperitoneal
3) ileum (3.6m): controls movement of intestinal contents into cecum, intraperitoneal

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224
Q

mesenteries of small intestine

A
  • duodenum: no mesentery
  • jejunum and ileum: fan-shaped mesentery proper (anchor to posterior wall)
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225
Q

small intestine structures

A

1) circular folds (plicae circulares): permanent, transverse folds of mucosa and submucosa = increase SA and slow chyme
2) intestinal villi: finger-like extensions of mucosa, covered by simple columnar cells, also increase SA
3) microvilli: projections from intestinal villi (brush border), increase SA

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226
Q

small intestine layers

A

1) mucosa:
- villi, intestinal glands, lymphoid nodules
- muscularis mucosae
- simple columnar with goblet cells
- lamina propria: capillary networks (nutrient-rich blood to liver), lacteals (lipid-protein complexes to venous system), nerves and smooth muscle
2) submucosa: lymphatics, vessels, submucosal neural plexus
3) muscular layer:
- circular and longitudinal
- myenteric neural plexus
4) serosa

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227
Q

small intestine plexuses

A
  • control movement of chyme and secretions
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228
Q

intestinal glands (crypts)

A
  • extend into lamina propria
  • enteroendocrine cells: hormone production, ex. CCK
  • paneth cells: innate immunity
  • stem cells: replenish epithelial cells lost in lumen and MALT
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229
Q

small intestine regional specializations

A

1) duodenum: mucous secretion and goblet cells, with submucosal (Brunner’s) glands
2) jejunum: nutrient absorption, well developed circular folds
3) ileum: lymphoid nodules (Peyer’s patches, target bacteria from large intestine), goblet cells (lubrication after lots of absorption)

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230
Q

large intestine structure

A
  • from ileocecal valve to anus (1.5m long, 6.5cm wide)
  • large = wider (shorter than small)
  • three regions
    1) cecum: blind ended sac (contents can only go up)
    2) colon: ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
    3) rectum
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231
Q

large intestine function

A
  • reabsorption of water and salts
  • absorption of vitamins
  • storage of feces
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232
Q

large intestine feactures

A

1) right colic (hepatic) flexure
2) left colic (splenic) flexure
3) haustra: permit expansion, created by…
4) teniae coli (3 strips): reorganization of external longitudinal layer
5) epiploic (omental) appendages: fatty appendages along teniae coli, function unknown

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233
Q

appendix

A
  • filled with lymphoid nodules and involved in immune function
  • attached to cecum
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234
Q

retroperitoneal and intraperitoneal parts of large intestine

A

1) ascending colon = secondarily retroperitoneal
2) transverse colon = intra
3) descending colon = secondarily retro
4) sigmoid colon = intra
5) rectum = retro

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235
Q

greater omentum connections

A
  • connects stomach to transverse colon
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236
Q

rectum characteristics

A
  • expandable, filling = urge to defecate
  • ends as anal canal, opens to outside at the anus
  • epithelium changes:
    1) simple columnar
    2) stratified squamous nonkeratinized
    3) keratinized
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237
Q

rectum features

A

1) anal canal: circular folds hold feces
2) internal anal sphincter: smooth muscle, thickening of inner circular muscular layer = reflex control
3) external anal sphincter: skeletal muscle = voluntary control

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238
Q

large intestine layers

A

1) mucosa:
- changing epithelium
- no villi or circular folds
- goblet cells, deep intestinal glands
- muscularis mucosae
2) submucosa
3) muscular layer:
- circular layer
- longitudinal layer = teniae coli
4) serosa

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239
Q

large intestine control

A
  • regulated by local reflexes in ANS
  • proximally: fecal material moves slowly by peristalsis, segmentation by haustral churning
  • mass movements: powerful, peristaltic-like contraction involving teniae coli (infrequently, ~2-3x/day)
  • rectal distension consciously sensed = sphincter relaxation
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240
Q

arterial supply of digestive system

A

1) celiac trunk = foregut:
- left gastric artery: lesser omentum
- splenic artery: greater omentum, spleen, pancreas
- common hepatic artery: liver, gall bladder, proximal duodenum, connects to left gastric artery
2) superior mesenteric artery = midgut: distal duodenum to left colic flexure
3) inferior mesenteric artery = hindgut: descending colon to upper rectum

(also, esophageal arteries, visceral branches of thoracic aorta)

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241
Q

hepatic portal system

A

1) hepatic portal vein: carries nutrient rich and O2 poor blood from digestive system (all other veins) to liver
2) left gastric vein
3) splenic vein
4) inferior mesenteric vein
5) superior mesenteric vein
6) hepatic veins: drain blood from liver to IVC

*no common hepatic or celiac vein!

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242
Q

portal vein definition

A
  • connects two capillary beds
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243
Q

liver capsule

A
  • covered by fibrous CT capsule and visceral peritoneum, except at bare area
  • peritoneum reflects to make ligaments
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244
Q

liver lobes

A

two major:
1) right
2) left
two smaller (only visible posteriorly)
3) caudate: next to IVC
4) quadrate: next to gall bladder

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245
Q

liver ligaments

A

1) coronary ligament: attaches to diaphragm
2) falciform ligament: attachment to anterior body wall
3) round ligament: free edge of falciform, remnant of fetal umbilical vein

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246
Q

liver bare area

A
  • close proximity to diaphragm
  • coronary ligament around attaches to diaphragm
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247
Q

porta hepatis

A
  • structure in liver containing: BVs, lymph, bile ducts and nerves
  • lateral to medial: common hepatic duct, hepatic artery proper, hepatic portal vein (more posterior)
  • housed under lesser omentum
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248
Q

liver functions

A

1) digestive: produce and secrete bile, facilitate fat digestion, buffer acidity in chyme
2) metabolic: regulate circulating levels of nutrients, store fat-soluble vitamins, remove metabolic wastes and toxins
3) hematological: synthesize plasma proteins, phagocytize debris in blood, blood reservoir

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249
Q

lesser omentum attachments

A
  • attaches stomach to liver
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250
Q

liver functional units

A
  • divided by CT (interlobular septum, containing interlobular veins and arteries) into lobules
  • commonly hexagonal shaped
  • portal triads at periphery: include branches of hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery proper and bile duct
  • central vein in the middle
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251
Q

blood flow through liver

A

1) blood from hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery proper drain into hepatic sinusoids (sinusoidal vessel)
2) drain into central vein
3) central veins merge to form hepatic veins
4) empty into IVC

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252
Q

blood processing in liver

A
  • as blood passes through, it is processed by:
    1) hepatocytes: nutrient packaging, metabolism, bile production, blood processing
    2) stellate macrophages: vit A and fat storage
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253
Q

liver perisinusoidal space

A
  • separates hepatocytes from endothelial cells
  • where functions of the liver take place
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254
Q

bile flow in liver

A

1) produced by hepatocytes
2) secreted into bile canaliculi
3) bile ductules
4) bile ducts
5) hepatic ducts: one for each lobe, collects all bile ducts
6) common hepatic duct
7) cystic duct to store in gall bladder
8) OR common bile duct: common hepatic + cystic duct –> major duodenal papilla

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255
Q

bile function

A
  • digestion of lipids in duodenum
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256
Q

hepatopancreatic ampulla

A
  • collects from common bile duct and pancreatic duct
  • flow controlled by hepatopancreatic sphincter: formed by part of duodenum wall
  • lipid/protein-containing chyme stimulates enteroendocrine cell release of CCK
  • CCK stimulates gallbladder contraction and hepatopancreatic sphincter relaxation
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257
Q

pancreas characteristics

A
  • posterior to stomach, incurve of duodenum
  • secondarily retroperitoneal
  • ~15cm long
  • head, body and tail (tail near spleen)
  • surrounded by thin fibrous CT capsule
  • divided into lobules by CT septa
  • endocrine and exocrine functions
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258
Q

pancreatic blood supply

A

1) celiac trunk
2) superior mesenteric artery

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259
Q

pancreas histology

A

1) pancreatic islets: endocrine = lighter staining
2) acinar cells: make up acini, exocrine = darker staining, eosinophilic lumen

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260
Q

pancreatic cell types and functions

A

1) pancreatic islets (contain many diff cells): endocrine products, ex. insulin/glucagon –> BVs
2) acinar cells: mucin, digestive enzymes
3) intercalated duct cells: bicarbonate ions, mix with digestive enzymes to go towards small intestine via pancreatic duct

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261
Q

urinary system component

A

kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

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262
Q

urinary tract components and function

A
  • ureters, bladder, urethra
  • store and eliminate urine
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263
Q

kidney function

A
  • maintenance of water and electrolyte homeostasis
  • elimination of by-products of metabolism: urine production
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264
Q

filtration/reabsorption in kidney

A
  • blood filtered, most reabsorbed
  • rest is filtrate converted to urine
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265
Q

urinary system function

A
  • elimination of organic wastes, toxins and some drugs
  • conservation of nutrients
  • storage/excretion of urine
  • regulation of blood volume and pressure
  • regulation of erythrocyte production
  • regulation of blood electrolyte concentration and pH
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266
Q

kidney location

A
  • either side of VC between T12-L3
  • right: posterior to liver, right colic flexure, duodenum
  • left: medial to spleen, posterior to stomach, pancreas, left colic flexure, small intestine
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267
Q

kidney structure

A

1) superior pole: adrenal glands
2) hilium: renal BVs (vein anterior to artery), lymphatics, nerves, renal pelvis
3) ureter
4) inferior pole

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268
Q

renal pelvis

A
  • connection to ureter in kidney
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269
Q

kidney coverings

A

deep to superficial:
1) fibrous capsule: thin dense irregular CT, maintains shape and protects
2) perinephric fat: cushioning and support
3) renal fascia: dense irregular CT, anchors kidney to surrounding structures and posterior abdominal wall
4) paranephric fat

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270
Q

L/R renal vein and artery differences

A
  • L vein longer bc IVC closer to L
  • L artery shorter bc aorta closer to R
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271
Q

internal features of kidneys

A

1) renal pyramid: renal medulla, has apex and base (abuts renal cortex)
2) renal papilla: formed by apex of renal pyramid, extends into minor calyx
3) renal columns: cortical tissue between pyramids
4) renal lobe: location of renal functional units, includes pyramid and adjacent cortex/columns
5) minor calyx: drains medulla into…
6) major calyx: formed by merging minor
7) renal pelvis: drains major calyxes
8) renal sinus: contains fat

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272
Q

blood supply to kidney

A

1) R/L renal arteries
2a) accessory artery
2b) segmental artery, divides further
3) interlobar arteries
4) arcuate arteries
5) cortical radiate arteries: branch into afferent arterioles and supply nephrons

*all are end arteries: do not anastamose with others

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273
Q

blood drainage from kidney

A
  • all arteries typically associated with veins
  • efferent arterioles drain nephrons (functional unit of kidney)
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274
Q

nephron components

A

1) renal corpuscle: spherical, contains glomerulus (bundle of BVs) and glomerular capsule
2) renal tubule: PCT, nephron loop, DCT

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275
Q

renal corpuscle function

A
  • filter blood
  • produce glomerular filtrate (enters capsular space)
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276
Q

renal tubule function

A
  • modifies glomerular filtrate through reabsorption/secretion
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277
Q

types of nephrons

A

1) cortical (85%): primarily in cortex, produce glomerular filtrate
2) juxtamedullary nephrons (15%): close to junction between cortex and medulla, extend into medulla, produce filtrate and ALSO create/maintain osmotic gradient in renal interstitium

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278
Q

importance of renal interstitium osmotic gradient

A
  • concentration of urine
  • modification of filtrate as it passes through
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279
Q

nephron blood supply

A

1) renal artery
2) segmental
3) interlobar
4) arcuate
5) cortical radiate
6) afferent arterioles
in nephron:
7) glomerulus
8) efferent arteriole
9) peritubular capillaries or vasa recta
10) venules
11) same veins, except no segmental veins

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280
Q

peritubular capillaries

A
  • around PCT/DCT
  • gas, nutrient, waste exchange
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281
Q

vasa recta

A
  • around nephron loop
  • gas, nutrient, waste, exchange
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282
Q

afferent vs efferent arteriole

A
  • afferent wider
  • creates increased hydrostatic pressure that drives H2O and low MW molecules through filter to form filtrate
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283
Q

urine formation

A

renal corpuscle:
1) glomerular filtration: movement of substances from blood within glomerulus to capsular space

renal tubule and collecting duct:
2) tubular reabsorption: movement of substances back to blood from tubular fluid (most)
3) tubular secretion: movement of substances from blood to tubular fluid

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284
Q

glomerular capsule layers

A

1) parietal layer: simple squamous cells
2) capsular space: contains glomerular filtrate
3) visceral layer: specialized cells (podocytes) with bulging nuclei and interlaced digits

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285
Q

glomerulus structure

A

1) vascular pole: where afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole enter
2) tubular pole: PCT
3) DCT closely associated with arterioles

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286
Q

filtration membrane in kidney

A
  • negatively charged
  • three layers:
    1) fenestration of glomerular endothelial cells: prevents blood cells, but all other plasma components can flow through
    2) basal lamina of glomerulus: blocks larger proteins
    3) slit membrane between podocytes (pedicels): blocks medium-sized proteins
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287
Q

PCT characteristics

A
  • located in cortex
  • simple cuboidal with very dense microvilli: most absorption in PCT
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288
Q

PCT functions

A
  • active reabsorption of ions, nutrients, vitamins, plasma proteins from filtrate to peritubular fluid (H2O follows passively), peritubular capillaries return these to general circulation
  • active secretion of organic acids/bases, metabolites, drugs into PCT lumen
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289
Q

nephron loop characteristics

A
  • descending limb
  • ascending limb: impermeable to water, actively pumps Na/Cl out of tubular fluid to concentrate interstitial fluid, drawing water with it (reabsorption), vasa recta returns to circulation
  • each has thick (simple cuboidal) and thin (simple squamous) segment
  • most water and NaCl reclaimed at this point
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290
Q

DCT characteristics

A
  • in cortex, passes vascular pole in renal corpuscle between afferent/efferent arterioles
  • simple cuboidal with FEW, BLUNT microvilli
  • smaller diameter than PCT
  • shorter than PCT
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291
Q

DCT function

A
  • active secretion of K/H into tubular fluid
  • reabsorption of NaCl, H2O when aldosterone and ADH present
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292
Q

PCT vs DCT on H&E stain

A
  • PCT: bigger cells, not every cell has nucleus, fuzzy lumen
  • DCT: smaller cells all with nuclei, empty lumen
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293
Q

juxtaglomerular complex function

A
  • regulate glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and blood pressure
  • ex. BP drop = lower Na in filtrate = SyNS input and release of renin
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294
Q

juxtaglomerular complex components

A

1) macula densa: modified epithelial cells in DCT, monitor [Na] in fluid
2) juxtaglomerular cells: modified (contractile to secretory) smooth muscle cells of afferent arteriole, monitor BP and innervated by SyNS for renin secretion (increases BP)
3) extraglomerular mesangial cells: surround and support vascular pole, FN not well understood

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295
Q

juxtaglomerular complex histology

A

1) macula densa: cells more columnar, contact afferent arteriole
2) juxtaglomerular cells: hard to see, but near afferent arteriole
3) extraglomerular mesangial cells: in space between afferent and efferent arterioles

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296
Q

collecting system function

A
  • transport fluid from DCT to minor calyx
  • make final adjustments to osmotic concentrations and volume
  • ADH controls permeability ex. dehydration = more ADH = more H2O reabsorption = more concentrated urine
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297
Q

collecting system comonents

A

1) collecting tubules
2) collecting ducts
3) papillary ducts

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298
Q

collecting system histology

A
  • tubules = simple cuboidal
  • ducts = simple columnar
  • collecting ducts have pale staining principal cells with few organelles and DISTINCT cell borders
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299
Q

ureter location

A
  • retroperitoneal
  • extend from renal pelvis to posterolateral wall of bladder (oblique angle)
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300
Q

ureter layers

A

1) mucosa: transitional epithelium and lamina propria
2) smooth muscular layer: longitudinal inner, circular outer
3) adventitia (CT)

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301
Q

bladder location

A
  • posterior to pubic symphysis
  • retroperitoneal (superior surface covered with peritoneum)
  • shape and location differ in M/F
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302
Q

urethra location

A
  • from urinary bladder to exterior
  • longer in males
  • shorter in females, UTIs more common
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303
Q

bladder features

A

1) rugae: formed by mucosal folds, allow for greater distension
2) trigone region: smooth, funnels urine from ureters to urethra
3) internal urethral sphincter: only in males, organized smooth muscle
4) detrusor muscle: 3 layers, contract to expel urine

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304
Q

urethra structure in males

A

1) prostatic urethra: goes through prostate
2) membranous urethra: passes through external urethral sphincter
3) spongy: penis

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305
Q

bladder layers

A

1) mucosa: transitional epithelium and lamina propria
2) submucosa
3) thick detrusor muscle
4) adventitia

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306
Q

urethra histology

A
  • large longitudinal folds around lumen
  • surrounded by bundles of smooth muscle
  • females: stratified squamous
  • males: changes from transitional –> stratified columnar/pseudostratified columnar –> stratified squamous
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307
Q

micturation control

A

1) bladder not full: SyNS (T11-L2) inhibit detrusor contraction, stimulate internal urethral sphincter
2) bladder full: baroreceptors and sensory axons (T11-L2) relay info to brain, PSyNS stimulate detrusor contraction and relax internal sphincter, somatic motor (S2-S4) relax external urethral sphincter

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308
Q

exocrine gland

A
  • duct connects gland to external environment
  • secretory cells release chemical products onto epithelial surface via duct
  • ex. eccrine sweat glands
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309
Q

endocrine glands

A
  • no connection to epithelial layer = ductless
  • secrete chemical products (hormones) into surrounding tissue –> blood stream
  • ex. endocrine pancreas
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310
Q

endocrine organs

A

1) CNS: hypothalamus, pituitary gland
2) thoracic cavity: thyroid, parathyroid
3) abdominal cavity: adrenal/suprarenal, pancreas

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311
Q

endocrine system functions

A
  • secrete hormones that act on receptors that modulate the biochemistry of target cells
  • maintain homeostasis through endocrine reflexes and feedback loops
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312
Q

characteristics of endocrine organs

A
  • clusters or cords of secretory cells
  • surrounded by supportive dense irregular CT
  • highly vascularized with fenestrated (most) or sinusoidal capillaries
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313
Q

neural vs endocrine signaling

A

1) same function = regulate body functions to maintain homeostasis
2) mechanism: electrical signaling and chemical neurotransmitters through nervous system (“wired”) vs chemical hormones distributed through CV system (“wireless”), BOTH act on specific receptors
3) speed: relatively fast vs slow
4) effect duration: short vs long-term
5) recovery: fast vs slow, BOTH regulated by feedback loops
6) location: localized/specific vs widespread/diffuse

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314
Q

types of hormones

A

1) amino acid derivatives
2) peptide hormones: largest class
3) steroid hormones

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315
Q

endocrine reflex

A

1) stimulus
2) integrating center
3) hormone 1
4) integrating center
5) hormone 2
6) target tissue
7) response

*feedback can be negative or positive

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316
Q

types of endocrine stimuli

A

1) humoral: changes in extracellular fluid composition
2) hormonal: changes in hormonal levels
3) neural: presence of neurotransmitter at neuroglandular junction

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317
Q

hypothalamus mechanisms

A
  • coordination center, regulates nervous and endocrine system by:
    1) secreting regulatory hormones
    2) functioning as an endocrine organ
    3) direct neural control (endocrine cells of adrenal gland)
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318
Q

hypothalamus regulatory hormones

A
  • control endocrine cells in anterior pituitary gland
  • two classes:
    1) releasing: stimulate synthesis and secretion of hormones
    2) inhibiting: prevent
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319
Q

hypothalamus endocrine organ function

A
  • neurons directly synthesizing hormones, transport to posterior pituitary
  • released at posterior pituitary
  • ex. ADH, oxytocin
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320
Q

hypothalamus direct neural control

A
  • ANS centers control autonomic output
  • SyNS activation = suprarenal medulla release of hormones into circulation
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321
Q

pituitary gland functions

A

1) tropic functions: modulate other endocrine glands
2) non-tropic functions: act directly on non-endocrine systems

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322
Q

pituitary structure

A

1) infundibulum: stalk portion connecting hypothalamus and pituitary glands
2) anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
3) posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis, pars nervosa)
4) sella turcica: hypophyseal fossa of spehnoid, houses glands

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323
Q

anterior pituitary divisions

A

1) pars distalis: most distal
2) pars intermedia: separates anterior/posterior
3) pars tuberalis: forms part of infundibulum

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324
Q

anterior pituitary control

A
  • regulatory hormones from hypothalamus via hypophyseal portal system
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325
Q

hypophyseal portal system

A

1) superior hypophyseal artery: branch from internal carotid
2) primary capillary plexus: hypothalamic neurons release hormones here
3) hypothalamic portal veins: carry hormones to AP
4) secondary capillary plexus: regulatory hormones modulate AP activity, AP release hormones here
5) hypophyseal veins: drain blood into general circulation via cavernous sinus

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326
Q

anterior pituitary cell types

A

1) chromophils
i) acidophils: prolactin, growth hormones
ii) basophils: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH (FLAT)
2) chromophobes: don’t stain well

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327
Q

anterior pituitary histology

A
  • acidophils = eosinophilic
  • basophils = basophilic
  • chromophobes = don’t stain
  • more basophilic (darker) than posterior pituitary
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328
Q

posterior pituitary control

A
  • axons from paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of hypothalamus travel through infundibulum to PP
  • hormones produced by PVN/SON travel along axon to synaptic terminals of PP –> released into interstitium, taken up by capillaries
  • SON = ADH
  • PVN = oxytocin
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329
Q

posterior pituitary blood supply

A

1) inferior hypophyseal artery: branch from meningohypophyseal trunk of internal carotid
2) hypohpyseal veins: drain released ADH and oxytocin to general circulation

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330
Q

posterior pituitary histology

A

1) herring bodies: intense staining clusters = terminal end of axons where hormones are stored
2) blood vessels
3) pituicytes: glial cells

*very eosinophilic

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331
Q

ADH function

A
  • act on kidneys and circulatory system for water reabsorption and increasing BV/BP
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332
Q

oxytocin function

A
  • female reproductive system
  • uterine contractions (positive feedback loop)
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333
Q

FSH/LH function

A
  • hypothalamic hormone = GnRH
  • follicular cells in ovary, nurse/interstitial cells of testes
  • FSH = estrogen secretion, sperm maturation
  • LH = testosterone secretion, ovulation
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334
Q

TSH function

A
  • hypothalamic hormone = TRH
  • thyroid gland hormone production
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335
Q

prolactin function

A
  • hypothalamic hormone = PRH
  • mammary gland milk production
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336
Q

growth hormone function

A
  • hypothalamic hormone = GHRH
  • liver, bone, muscle
  • growth, protein synthesis, lipid metabolism
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337
Q

ACTH function

A
  • hypothalamic hormone = CRH
  • adrenal gland glucocorticoid production
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338
Q

thyroid gland characteristics

A
  • two lobes connected by isthmus, created by surrounding DICT capsule
  • butterfly-shaped
  • anterior surface of trachea: cartilage ring 2-3
  • easily palpable with fingers, especially when enlarged (goiter)
  • highly vascularized
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339
Q

thyroid arterial supply

A

1) external carotid artery –> superior thyroid artery
2) subclavian artery –> thyrocervical trunk, inferior thyroid artery

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340
Q

thyroid venous drainage

A

1) internal jugular veins –> superior thyroid and middle thyroid veins
2) brachiocephalic vein –> inferior thyroid vein

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341
Q

thyroid gland structure

A
  • enclosed in fibrous capsule that sends trabeculae deep into the gland = irregular lobules
  • functional unit = thyroid follicle (spherical)
  • follicular cells = thyrocytes
  • parafollicular (C) cells between thyroid follicles
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342
Q

thyroid follicle

A
  • simple cuboidal epithelium (can change to columnar if more active)
  • cavity filled with colloid (viscous fluid)
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343
Q

thyrocyte functions

A

1) synthesize thyroglobulin (prohormone)
2) secrete colloid –> become iodinated
3) breakdown to form thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4, storage) and triiodothyronine (T3, active form)

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344
Q

parafollicular (C) cell function

A
  • secrete calcitonin, which decreases [Ca]:
    1) inhibits osteoclast activity
    2) stimulates Ca excretion at kidneys
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345
Q

hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis

A

1) low body temperature
2) hypothalamus: releases TRH
3) anterior pituitary: releases TSH
4) thyroid: produces thyroid hormones
5) increase metabolic rate, increase body temperature
6) negative feedback to hypothalamus and anterior pituitary through homeostasis restoration

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346
Q

parathyroid glands location

A
  • 4 pea-sized, located on posterior aspect of thyroid gland
  • two superior, two inferior
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347
Q

parathyroid blood supply

A
  • superior = superior thyroid arteries
  • inferior = inferior thyroid arteries
  • venous drainage same as thyroid gland
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348
Q

parathyroid characteristics

A
  • surrounded by CT capsule that forms irregular lobules
  • two specialized cell types:
    1) parathyroid cells (chief/principal): produce parathyroid hormone
    2) oxyphil cells: immature/inactive parathyroid cells
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349
Q

parathyroid gland control

A
  • humoral stimulus = [Ca] in circulation
  • decrease in Ca stimulates PTH secretion
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350
Q

PTH function

A

1) stimulate osteoclasts and osteoblasts (needed to activate osteoclasts)
2) reduce urinary Ca excretion
3) stimulate calcitriol production (kidney, increases intestinal absorption of Ca)

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351
Q

parathyroid gland histology

A
  • very cellular
  • oxyphil cells: more cytoplasm
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352
Q

adrenal (suprarenal) gland characteristics

A
  • pyramid-shaped
  • one on each superior pole of kidney (retroperitoneal)
  • CT capsule
  • highly vascularized
  • two regions: cortex (superficial) and medulla (deep)
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353
Q

adrenal arterial supply

A

1) abdominal aorta –> superior and middle adrenal arteries
2) renal artery –> inferior adrenal arteries

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354
Q

adrenal cortex characteristics

A
  • cells with high lipid content that secrete 24 types of steroid hormones (adrenocortical steroids)
  • three layers (superficial to deep):
    1) zona glomerulosa: cells in densely packed clusters (“glomeruli), produce mineralocorticoids ex. aldosterone
    2) zona fasciculata: cells in radiating cords, separated by fenestrated capillaries, produce glucocorticoids ex. cortisol
    3) zona reticularis: reticular network of small cells, produce androgens
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355
Q

adrenal medulla characteristics

A
  • primarily chromaffin cells: large, rounded, resemble sympathetic ganglia neuron (modified postganglionic sympathetic neuron)
  • two types of endocrine cells that secrete catecholamines: 80% epinephrine, 20% NE
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356
Q

adrenal medulla innervation

A
  • by sympathetic preganglionic neurons –> splenic nerve –> target cells
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357
Q

adrenal medulla function

A
  • trigger utilization of cellular energy to increase muscle strength and endurance
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358
Q

hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

A

1) stress
2) hypothalamus releases corticotropin releasing hormone
3) anterior pituitary releases ACTH
4) adrenal cortex releases cortisol
5) stress response

*4/5 act as negative feedback on hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

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359
Q

pancreas characteristics

A
  • retroperitoneal
  • head, body, tail
  • mixed gland: acini/ducts are exocrine (99%), pancreatic islets are endocrine
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360
Q

pancreas blood supply

A
  • pancreatic branches of:
    1) splenic artery
    2) pancreaticoduodenal arteries
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361
Q

pancreatic islets characteristics

A
  • aka islet of langerhans
  • surrounded by CT
  • fenestrated capillaries
  • ANS input through celiac plexus
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362
Q

pancreatic islet cell types

A

1) alpha cells: glucagon
2) beta cells: insulin
3) delta cells: somatostatin, inhibits alpha/beta cell production
4) F cells (least common): pancreatic polypeptide, inhibits gallbladder contraction, regulates enzyme production (overall slows digestion)

*cannot be distinguished on H&E stain

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363
Q

low blood glucose reflex

A

1) alpha cells release glucagon
2) increased glycogen breakdown in liver
3) increase blood glucose

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364
Q

high blood glucose reflex

A

1) beta cells release insulin
2) stimulates glucose uptake
3) more glycogen formation in liver
4) decrease blood glucose

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365
Q

reproductive system components

A

1) primary sex organs = gonads = testes and ovaries
2) accessory organs

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366
Q

gonads function

A
  • produce haploid gametes and sex hormones
  • ovary = oocytes, estrogen, progesterone
  • testes = sperm, androgens
  • gametes fuse to form diploid zygote
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367
Q

activation of reproductive systems

A
  • primarily non-functional until puberty, when hypothalamus releases GnRH
  • acts on ant. pituitary = FSH/LH release
  • at puberty: external sex characteristics develop, gametes mature and gonads start to secrete sex hormones
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368
Q

components of male reproductive system

A

1) genital ducts: ductus (vas) deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra, epididymis
2) external genitalia: penis, scrotum, testes
3) accessory glands: seminal, prostate, bulbourethral

369
Q

testes descent purpose

A
  • for temperature regulation: sperm must be below body temp to be viable
370
Q

testes descent time

A
  • between 3rd month of gestation and birth
371
Q

testes descent

A
  • go from retroperitoneal position to external
  • descent from posterior abdominal wall into scrotum
372
Q

gubernaculum testes

A
  • cord of CT and muscle fibers anchored to scrotum
  • does not elongate, eventually shortens
  • pulls testes through layers of abdominal wall (via inguinal canal)
373
Q

testes descent steps

A

1) testes anchored by gubernaculum to developing scrotum
2) pulled through abdominal wall during growth: deep inguinal ring formed passing through transversalis fascia
3) peritoneum evaginates at deep inguinal ring = processus vaginalis (does not pass through! only guides)
4) evagination continues through inguinal canal: superficial inguinal ring formed passing through external oblique aponeurosis
5) descent complete by birth: processes vaginalis closes off and forms tunica vaginalis

374
Q

inguinal canal

A
  • between deep and superficial inguinal rings
375
Q

testes descent: layers of abdominal wall

A

1) does NOT pass through peritoneum
2) transversalis fascia
3) does NOT pass through transversus abdominis
4) internal oblique muscle
5) external oblique muscle/aponeurosis

376
Q

spermatic cord

A
  • structures passing between abdominopelvic cavities and the testes and fascial coverings
377
Q

spermatic cord wall

A

1) external spermatic fascia
2) cremaster muscle (smooth) and fascia
3) internal spermatic fascia

378
Q

cremaster muscle function

A
  • temperature control
  • contracts to bring testes closer when cold
379
Q

dartos muscle

A
  • in superficial fascia under scrotum
  • temperature control: contracts to bring testes closer
380
Q

scrotum

A
  • homologous to labia majora
  • covers testes
381
Q

spermatic cord contents

A

1) ductus deferens and artery to ductus deferens
2) testicular artery and pampiniform plexus
3) branch of genitofemoral nerve and autonomic nerves
4) lymphatics

382
Q

pampiniform plexus

A
  • extensive vein network
  • cools blood entering into testes
383
Q

abdominal wall –> coverings of spermatic cord

A

1) peritoneum = tunica vaginalis
2) transversalis fascia = internal spermatic fascia
3) transversus abdominis muscle = nothing, not passed through
4) internal oblique muscle/fascia = cremasteric muscle/fascia
5) external oblique aponeurosis = external spermatic fascia
6) subcutaneous tissue = dartos fascia/muscle
7) skin = skin

384
Q

inguinal hernias

A
  • weakened parts of abdominal wall result in protrusion of peritoneal sac
  • with or without abdominal contents ex. intestine
385
Q

indirect inguinal hernia

A
  • peritoneal sac enters inguinal canal VIA deep inguinal ring
  • passes LATERAL to inferior epigastric vessels
  • cause: embryonic processus vaginalis remains open
  • commonly congenital
386
Q

direct inguinal hernias

A
  • peritoneal sac enters inguinal canal DIRECTLY
  • passes MEDIAL to inferior epigastric vessels
  • cause: weakening in abdominal wall
  • commonly acquired
387
Q

cryptorchidism

A
  • one or both testes fail to descend
  • higher proportion of inviable sperm produced
388
Q

testes structures

A

1) tunica vaginalis: serous membrane, parietal and visceral layers line scrotal cavity (containing serous fluid)
2) tunica albuginea: fibrous CT capsule, forms septa lobules
3) septa: subdivide internal space into lobules containing…
4) seminiferous tubules: blind end or loop, contain sustentacular and dividing germ cells
5) ducts: straight tubules –> rete testis –> efferent ductule, which goes to epididymis
6) raphe: ridge of tissue extending from anus to scrotum

389
Q

testes histology

A

1) outer tunica albuginea
2) seminiferous tubules
3) interstitial cells between = hormone production

390
Q

seminiferous tubules

A
  • site of spermatogenesis
  • complex stratified epithelium containing sustentacular and spermatogenic cells
391
Q

sustentacular cells

A
  • protection and nourishment for sperm cells
  • produce inhibit when sperm count is high (inhibits FSH secretion)
  • secured together by tight junctions = blood-testes barrier
392
Q

blood-testis barrier

A
  • protects sperm from immune system
393
Q

interstitial cells

A
  • produce androgens ex. testosterone
  • located between seminiferous tubules in loose CT along with BVs, nerves, lymphatics
394
Q

myoid cells

A
  • unique contractile cells
  • expel contents of seminiferous tubules
395
Q

seminiferous tubule histology

A

1) myoid cells = outer edge, flattened nuclei
2) interstitial cells = outside
3) sustentacular cell = lighter stain, extend entire tubular wall
4) outer to inner (least to most mature):
a) spermatogonium = dark nucleus
b) primary spermatocyte = speckled
c) secondary spermatocyte
d) spermatid = smaller, not speckled
e) spermatozoon = tails

396
Q

testes duct system function

A
  • store sperm
  • transport sperm as they mature and pass out of the body (or die)
  • facilitate transport through smooth muscle stimulated by oxytocin
397
Q

testes duct system components

A

1) rete testes
2) efferent ductules
3) epididymis: head, body, tail
4) ductus deferens

398
Q

rete testis

A
  • complex anastomotic network
  • simple cuboidal with microvilli
  • receive from straight tubule
399
Q

efferent ductules

A
  • ciliated and non-ciliated columnar
  • absorb excess fluid secreted by seminiferous tubules
400
Q

epididymis function

A
  • accumulation, storage and maturation (learn to swim) of sperm
  • uptake and digestion of luminal fluid and degenerated sperm
401
Q

epididymis structure

A
  • highly coiled tube
  • pseudostratified columnar epithelium with LONG microvilli (“sterocilia”)
  • principal cells = tall, columnar
  • basal cells = small, round
  • circular layer of smooth muscle
402
Q

ductus deferens structure

A
  • thick-walled tube within spermatic cord
  • connects epididymis to prostatic urethra
  • ends at large ampulla (posterior to bladder)
  • unites with proximal seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct
  • empties into prostatic urethra (common with urine)
403
Q

ductus deferens layers

A

1) mucosa: pseudostratified columnar with few stereocilia + lamina propria
2) muscularis: inner longitudinal, middle circular, outer longitudinal
3) adventitia

404
Q

accessory gland general functions

A
  • produce/secrete ~95% of seminal fluid to support sperm survival
  • smooth muscle contraction with SyNS during emission
405
Q

accessory glands specific functions

A

1) seminal vesicle/gland: secretions with fructose for energy
2) prostate gland: multiple ducts that secrete milky, nutrient rich fluid
3) bulbourethral glands: clear, viscous mucin for lubrication

406
Q

accessory gland locations

A

1) seminal: lateral to vas deferens, empty into ejaculatory duct
2) prostate gland: around prostatic urethra
3) bulbourethral: embedded in urogenital diaphragm, empty into membranous/spongy urethra

407
Q

perineum

A
  • diamond-shaped area between thighs
  • inferior to pelvic diaphragm
  • consists of:
    1) urogenital triangle: pubis symphysis, ischiopubic rami to ischial tuberosities
    2) anal triangle: ischial tuberosities and coccyx
408
Q

urogenital triangle components

A

1) base of penis and scrotum OR clitoris
2) urethral and/or vaginal orifices
3) perineal membrane
4) skeletal muscles around external genitalia

409
Q

anal triangle components

410
Q

penis function

A
  • conduct urine and semen
411
Q

penis structure

A

1) bulb connects to body
2) crus of penis: attaches to perineum
3) root: fixed portion in urogenital triangle
4) body: suspended from pubic symphysis
5) glans: expanded, cap-like end of corpus spongiosum (covered by prepuce in uncircumcised person)
6) three parallel erectile columns: homologous to clitoris

412
Q

penis erectile columns

A

1) bilateral corpora cavernosa: dorsal (anatomical position = erect), surrounded by tunica albuginea
2) corpus spongiosum: ventral, containing spongy urethra

  • all encased in fascia and skin
413
Q

corpus cavernosa relative anatomy

A
  • diverge as crura of penis
  • fuse to ischiopubic rami
  • covered by ischiocavernosus
414
Q

corpus spongiosum relative anatomy

A
  • expands as bulb of penis
  • fuses to underside of perineal membrane
  • covered by bulbospongiosus
415
Q

perineal muscles in male

A
  • skeletal
  • ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus
416
Q

penis blood supply

A

1) internal iliac artery
2) branches to dorsal and deep arteries
3) deep arteries branch and open into cavernous spaces of erectile tissue
4) arteriovenous anastomoses between deep artery branches and deep dorsal vein

417
Q

erectile tissue structure

A
  • vascular spaces with smooth muscle and elastic CT trabeculae
418
Q

erection

A
  • PSyNS relaxes trabecular and vascular smooth muscles
  • tunica albuginea limits filling of cavernous spaces = compression of dorsal veins traps blood
419
Q

emission

A
  • SyNS input = peristalsis in ductus deferens and accessory glands
420
Q

ejaculation

A
  • reflexive somatic input = rhythmic contraction of striated muscle surrounding bulb and crura of penis
421
Q

female reproductive system components

A

1) two ovaries
2) uterine tube
3) uterus
4) peritoneum creates recesses: vesicouterine and rectouterine pouches
5) external genitalia: mons pubis, clitoris, labia minora/majora
6) vagina
7) vestibule

422
Q

descent of ovaries

A

1) ovaries anchored by gubernaculum
2) growth causes ovaries to descend to pelvic brim (stays internal)
3) portion of gubernaculum attaches to uterus, splits to form: ovarian and round ligaments

423
Q

ovary/uterus ligaments

A

1) ovarian: ovary to uterus
2) round: uterus to labia majora, travels through inguinal canal
3) broad: drape of peritoneum where anterior and posterior layers connect, connects to ovary at hilum
4) suspensory: ovarian to pelvic wall, contains ovarian BVs, nerves and lymphatics

424
Q

ovaries

A
  • paired, oval
  • anchored by specific cords and sheets of CT
  • no peritoneum, in peritoneal cavity
425
Q

ovary and uterine tube connection

A
  • not directly connected
  • space between
426
Q

broad ligament contents

A
  • subdivisions contain VANs, lymphatics
427
Q

ovary histology

A

outer to inner:
1) germinal (surface) epithelium: simple cuboidal (mesothelium)
2) tunica albuginea: dense irregular CT
3) cortex: contains ovarian follicles
4) medulla: areolar CT, BVs, Ls, Ns

428
Q

oogenesis

A
  • production of primordial germ cells begins before birth (halted in prophase I = primary oocyte)
429
Q

atresia

A
  • primordial germ cells degenerating throughout childhood (programmed cell death)
430
Q

ovarian cycle

A
  • post puberty
  • monthly sequence of follicular development regulated by GnRH (affects FSH and LH levels)
  • follicular (1-14) and luteal phase (15-28)
431
Q

follicular pahse

A
  • stimulated by increasing FSH
  • primordial follicles (many) –> primary –> secondary –> mature (primary oocyte differentiates into secondary and polar body)
432
Q

primordial follicle

A
  • primary oocyte
  • simple squamous follicle cells
  • outer surface has thin basal lamina
433
Q

primary follicle

A
  • simple cuboidal cells that undergo stratification to form granulosa layer (uni to multilaminar)
  • surrounding stroma (CT + smooth muscle) forms thecal layers (interna and externa)
  • zona pellucida around primary oocyte
434
Q

zona pellucida

A
  • protective acellular layer around oocyte
  • contains sperm receptors
  • “clear”
435
Q

which cells secrete estrogen precursors?

A
  • granulosa
  • theca interna
436
Q

secondary follicle

A
  • primary oocyte
  • many granulosa cell layers
  • follicular fluid accumulates = become one continuous space = antrum
  • granulosa cells form cumulus oophorus: attaches oocyte to follicular wall
  • corona radiata: cells of CO that immediately surround oocyte
437
Q

mature follicle

A
  • one predominant follicle
  • extends thickness of cortex
  • antrum increases in size
  • stratum granulosa thins
  • oocyte and cumulus cells loosen from surrounding granulosum = prep for ovulation
  • thecal cells become more prominent
  • secondary oocyte halted in meiosis II until fertilized
438
Q

fate of immature follicles

A
  • atresia (majority)
439
Q

luteal phase

A
  • remaining granulosa cells + theca interna of ruptured follicle = corpus luteum, secretes progesterone and estrogens to prepare uterine lining for implantation
440
Q

ovulation

A
  • surge of LH causes release of secondary oocyte into peritoneal cavity
441
Q

corpus luteum vs granulosa/theca interna cells

A
  • increase in size, fill with lipids
442
Q

end of luteal phase if no sperm

A
  • corpus albicans = dense CT scar from degenerating corpus luteum
  • estrogen and progesterone decrease = uterine lining shed
443
Q

end of luteal phase if there is sperm

A
  • secondary oocyte fertilized, may implant in uterine wall
  • pre-embryo produces human chorionic gonadotropic (hCG) hormone
  • hCG maintains corpus luteum, which continues to secrete progesterone
  • after 3 months: placenta takes over, corpus luteum degenerates
444
Q

polycystic ovary disease

A
  • multiple follicular cysts
  • thickness of tunica albuginea prevents ovulation of mature follicle
445
Q

uterine tube structure

A

1) uterine part
2) isthmus
3) ampulla: expanded region where fertilization typically occurs
4) infundibulum: funnel-like area with fimbriae that sweep secondary oocyte into tube

446
Q

uterine tube histology

A

1) columnar (ciliated and non-ciliated) epithelium
2) lamina propria
3) smooth muscle: inner circular, outer longitudinal
4) serosa

447
Q

uterus support

A
  • thick, muscular wall
  • pelvic floor (inferior)
  • ligaments: cardinal (transverse cervical), uterosacral, round
448
Q

uterus epithelium

A
  • simple columnar
  • transitions to stratified squamous nonkeratinized passing through cervix and vagina
449
Q

uterus structure

A

1) fundus
2) body with uterine cavity
3) isthmus: narrowing
4) cervical canal

450
Q

internal/external os

A

1) internal = cervical opening from uterus (simple columnar to simple cuboidal)
2) external = cervical opening to vagina (simple cuboidal to stratified squamous nonkeratinized)

451
Q

cardinal (transverse cervical) ligaments

A
  • under broad ligament
  • cervix to pelvic wall
  • prevents inferior movement of uterus
452
Q

uterosacral ligament

A
  • attaches to sacrum (posterior side of uterus)
  • restricts inferior and anterior movement of uterus
453
Q

round ligament of uterus

A
  • anterior side
  • attaches to external genitalia
  • prevents inferior and posterior movement of uterus
454
Q

prolapse

A
  • weakness of pelvic floor and/or ligaments causes uterus to fall through into vagina
  • varying degrees
455
Q

uterine wall layers

A

1) perimetrium: outer, mostly serosa, continuous with broad ligament
2) myometrium: middle, 3 concentric layers of smooth muscle
3) endometrium: innermost mucosa = simple columnar (some ciliated, others secretory) + lamina propria (with uterine glands)

456
Q

uterine wall blood supply

A

1) branch from internal iliac artery (from aorta –> 2x common iliac –> internal)
2) uterine artery
3) arcuate artery = myometrium
4) radial artery = myometrium
5) straight artery = basal layer of endometrium
6) spiral artery = functional layer of endometrium

457
Q

endometrium layers

A

1) basal: highly cellular lamina propria, uterine glands
2) functional: sparser (spongier) lamina propria, more ground substance, includes most of length of glands and superficial epithelium –> lost during menstruation

458
Q

menstruation mechanism

A
  • spiral arteries retract
  • functional endometrium loses blood supply
459
Q

uterine cycle

A
  • cyclical changes to endometrial lining under influence of estrogens and progesterone
    1-7 = menstrual phase
    ~10 = proliferative
    ~14 = secretory
460
Q

inhibin in females

A

produced by granulosa cells, inhibits FSH production

461
Q

menstrual phase

A
  • triggered by decreasing progesterone and estrogen
  • spiral arteries contract, superficial becomes ischemic
  • degeneration and sloughing of functional layer
462
Q

proliferative phase

A
  • increasing estrogen from developing follicles
  • cellular proliferation to regenerate functional layer (uterine epithelium, glands and spiral arteries)
  • glands secrete glycogen and rich mucus
463
Q

secretory phase

A
  • begins after ovulation, persists as long as corpus luteum is intact
  • stimulated by progesterone and estrogen from corpus luteum
  • glands enlarge and accelerate secretion rate
464
Q

vagina structure

A
  • fibromuscular tube with three layers:
    1) mucosa: stratified squamous nonkeratinized + lamina propria
    2) muscular layer (thinner than uterus)
    3) adventitia
  • greater vestibular glands around vestibule: area between labia minora
465
Q

vagina acidic environment

A
  • discourages bacterial growth
  • necessitates buffering capacity of seminal fluid
466
Q

vagina connections

A
  • vaginal canal connects cervix to external environment
467
Q

urogenital triangle in females

A
  • covered by perineal membrane
  • provides attachment for erectile tissue of external genitalia (vulva)
468
Q

female external genitalia arrangement

A

1) mons pubis = skin and adipose tissue
2) labia majora = paired thickened folds of skin, homologous to scrotum
3) labia minora = paired folds, no hair, more medial than majora
4) vestibule: contains urethral (anterior) and vaginal openings

469
Q

female erectile tissue

A

1) clitoris: crura, body, glans = homologous to penis
2) bulbs of vestibule: bilateral, deep to vestibule, connected to clitoris, homologous to bulb of penis

470
Q

perineal muscles in female

A
  • bulbospongiosus over bulbs of vestibule
  • ischiocavernosus over crura of clitoris
  • propel blood into body and glans of clitoris
  • skeletal muscle
471
Q

upper limb bone divisions

A

1) shoulder: pectoral girdle
2) arm: humerus
3) forearm: radius, ulna
4) hand: carpals, metacarpals, phalanges

472
Q

upper limb bone count

A

32 in total

473
Q

pectoral girdle components

A

clavicle and scapula

474
Q

pectoral girdle function

A
  • connects upper limb to axial skeleton
  • attachment site for muscles
475
Q

sternoclavicular joint

A
  • clavicle + manubrium (sternum)
  • only articulation between upper limb and axial skeleton
476
Q

clavicle function

A
  • strut: allows range of movement
  • protects upper limb
  • transmits shock from upper limb to axial skeleton
477
Q

clavicle surfaces

A
  • smooth superior
  • rough inferior: for ligamentous connections
478
Q

clavicle structure

A

1) acromial end
2) shaft
3) sternal end

479
Q

scapula bone type

480
Q

scapula anterior vs posterior surface

A
  • posterior has spine and acromion
  • anterior has coracoid process
481
Q

scapula borders

A

1) superior
2) lateral
3) medial

482
Q

scapula angles

A

1) superior
2) inferior
3) lateral

483
Q

scapula fossae and cavities

A

anterior:
1) subscapular fossa
2) glenoid cavity
posterior:
3) supraspinous
4) infraspinous
5) suprascapular notch

484
Q

humerus bone type

485
Q

humerus articulations

A
  • proximal glenohumeral joint: head (humerus) + glenoid cavity (scapula)
  • distal elbow joint: articulates with radius and ulna
486
Q

humerus anterior and posterior structures

A

1) head: 1/3 sphere, glenoid cavity = shallow = mobile joint
2) greater tubercle (lateral side)
3) anatomical neck
4) surgical neck: only bone with two necks, common breaking point
5) deltoid tuberosity (lateral): roughened area for deltoid attachment

487
Q

humerus anterior only structures

A

1) intertubercular sulcus
2) lesser tubercle: more medial
3) radial fossa: head of radius during elbow flexion
4) coronoid fossa: coronoid process of ulna during elbow flexion
5) lateral epicondyle: forearm muscle attachment
6) medial epicondyle: funny bone (nerve) presses against this
7) capitulum (lateral)
8) trochlea (medial)

488
Q

humerus posterior only structures

A

1) radial groove: radial nerve + artery
2) olecranon fossa: olecranon process of ulna during elbow extension

489
Q

radius and ulna bone types

A

long bones

490
Q

radius and ulna articulations

A

1) antebrachial interosseous membrane (DICT): holds bones together, separates anterior from posterior
2) proximal radioulnar joint: with humerus
3) distal radioulnar joint: with carpal bones

491
Q

ulna features

A

1) olecranon: forms elbow in olecranon fossa
2) coronoid process
3) trochlear notch: grips humerus trochlea
4) radial notch: radial articulation
5) ulnar tuberosity: muscle attachment
6) head of ulna (distal end!): ball of wrist
7) ulnar styloid process

492
Q

radius features

A

1) head of radius: articulates with radial notch of ulna
2) neck of radius
3) radial tuberosity: muscle attachment
4) radial styloid process
5) carpal articular surface: articulates with carpals

493
Q

ulna and radius relative location

A

ulna medial to radius

494
Q

carpal bone types

A

short bones (cube shaped)

495
Q

carpal bone arrangement

A

proximal row (lateral to medial):
1) scaphoid: biggest, commonly broken
2) lunate
3) triquetrum
4) pisiform
distal row (lateral to medial):
5) trapezium: thumb bone
6) trapezoid
7) capitate
8) hamate: anterior side has hook of the hamate

SOME LOVERS TRY POSITIONS THAT THEY CAN’T HANDLE

496
Q

carpal bone that can’t be seen posteriorly

A

pisiform because lies on top of triquetrum

497
Q

metacarpal and phalange bone types

A

long bones

498
Q

metacarpal structure

A

each has base (attached to carpals), body and head

499
Q

metacarpal numbering

A

1-5 lateral to medial (thumb is one)

500
Q

phalange naming

A
  • proximal, middle and distal (except thumb does not have middle)
501
Q

thumb anatomical name

502
Q

upper limb joint classification

A
  • most are diarthrotic synovial joints
  • exceptions:
    1) scapulothoracic joint: scapula + thoracic wall = not a true joint (no bone-bone articulation, no joint capsule)
    2) antebrachial interosseous membrane: amphiarthrotic fibrous joint
503
Q

synovial joint classification

A

1) plane = uniaxial
2) pivot = uniaxial
3) saddle = biaxial
4) hinge = uniaxial
5) condylar (condyloid) = biaxial
6) ball and socket = multiaxial

504
Q

synovial joint structure

A
  • double layered joint capsule: inner synovial, outer fibrous
  • creates joint cavity with synovial fluid
  • ligaments reinforce capsule (have unique names
  • articular cartilage along bones
  • some have bursae
505
Q

synovial fluid function

A
  • lubrication
  • nourishes articular cartilage
  • shock absorber
506
Q

bursae function

A
  • fibrous saclike structures filled with synovial fluid
  • alleviate friction
507
Q

carpometacarpal joint (CMC) classification

A

digit 1 = saddle, others = plane

508
Q

metacarpophalangeal joint (MCP) classification

509
Q

proximal/distal interphalangeal joint (PIP) classification

510
Q

thumb movements

A

1) abduction: perpendicular away from pal
2) adduction
3) extension: parallel away from palm
4) flexion
5) opposition: connect thumb to other digits in front of palm

511
Q

CMC joint movement

A
  • for digits 2-5: flex/ex
512
Q

MCP joint movement

A
  • flex/ex
  • ab/adduction (middle finger considered midline)
513
Q

PIP joint movement

514
Q

sternoclavicular joint type

A
  • saddle synovial
  • acts as ball and socket
515
Q

sternoclavicular joint movements

A
  • elevation/depression
  • anterior/posterior
516
Q

sternoclavicular joint features

A

1) articular disc: shock absorber from upper limb

517
Q

sternoclavicular joint ligaments

A

1) anterior/posterior sternoclavicular ligaments: reinforce capsule
2) interclavicular ligament
3) costoclavicular ligament: underside of clavicle

518
Q

acromioclavicular joint type

A

plane synovial, allows gliding

519
Q

acromioclavicular joint articulation

A

acromial end of clavicle + acromion of scapula

520
Q

acromioclavicular joint features

A
  • articular disc
  • muscle fibers of trapezius help support the joint
521
Q

acromioclavicular joint ligaments

A

1) acromioclavicular ligament: intrinsic
2) coracoclavicular: extrinsic, attaches to underside of clavicle

522
Q

intrinsic vs extrinsic ligament

A
  • intrinsic: part of joint, formed by thickening of joint capsule
  • extrinsic: not part of joint capsule
523
Q

glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) type

A

ball and socket

524
Q

glenohumeral joint articulation

A

head of humerus (1/3) + glenoid cavity

525
Q

glenohumeral joint features

A

1) standard joint capsule
2) glenoid labrum: wraps around glenoid cavity, deepening it for more stability (more of head can fit)

526
Q

glenohumeral joint movements

A

1) flex/ex in sagittal plane
2) abd/add in frontal plane
3) horizonal abd/add in transverse plane
4) medial/lateral rotation in transverse plane

527
Q

glenohumeral joint supporting structures

A

1) inferior aspect of acromion and coracoid process support joint superiorly
2) rotator cuff muscles/tendons (absent inferiorly! common dislocation = moves inferior, pulled ant/post)

528
Q

glenohumeral joint ligaments

A

1) coracoacromial ligament: limits superior dislocation
2) intrinsic glenohumeral ligaments
3) coracohumeral ligament: inhibits excessive rotation

529
Q

glenohumeral joint bursae

A

1) subacromial
2) subdeltoid
3) tendinous sheath

*all located in areas of friction

530
Q

glenohumeral joint muscle support

A

1) rotator cuffs on anterior/posterior
2) tendon of long head of biceps brachii: helps stabilize head of humerus

531
Q

shoulder separation

A
  • acromioclavicular joint separated
532
Q

shoulder dislocation

A
  • glenohumeral joint separated
533
Q

scapulothoracic joint type

A
  • not a true joint!
  • no bone-bone articulation, instead separated by muscle
  • no capsule/ligaments
534
Q

scapulothoracic joint function

A
  • enable free range of motion of the upper limb
535
Q

scapulothoracic joint movements

A

1) elevation/depression
2) retraction (scapula closer together) / protraction (move away from vertebral column
3) upward rotation: glenoid cavity and inferior angle point up, contributes to abduction of UL
4) downward rotation: glenoid cavity and inferior angle down, contributes to adduction of UL

536
Q

scapulothoracic joint supporting muscles

A

1) subscapularis: between thoracic wall and scapula
2) serratus anterior: wraps around thorax

537
Q

elbow joint type

A
  • compound: more than one articulation
  • hinge synovial
538
Q

elbow joint articulations

A

1) humeroulnar: trochlea of humerus + trochlear notch of ulna
2) humeroradial articulation: capitulum of humerus and head of radius
3) proximal radio-ulnar joint: within articular capsule

539
Q

elbow joint movements

540
Q

elbow joint ligaments

A

1) anular ligament: stabilizes radial head within radial notch of ulna (goes one side of ulna to other)
2) radial collateral ligament: stabilizes lateral aspect
3) ulnar collateral ligament: medial aspect

541
Q

why is anular ligament important in elbow?

A
  • shallow groove
  • doesn’t completely ossify until older = needs more support
542
Q

collateral ligaments

A

on sides of joints

543
Q

elbow joint bursae

A

1) olecranon bursa

544
Q

radioulnar joints characteristics

A
  • connected by flat ligament: antebrachial interosseous membrane
  • articulation of radius and ulna
545
Q

radioulnar joint type

A

pivot synovial: radius rotates around stationary ulna

546
Q

radioulnar joint movements

A

1) supination: palm up, radial tuberosity up
2) protonation: palm down, radial tuberosity down

547
Q

radiocarpal (wrist) joint type

A

condyloid synovial

548
Q

radiocarpal joint articulations

A
  • proximal row of carpals (except pisiform) + distal radius + articular disc
549
Q

radiocarpal joint ligaments

A

1) anterior/posterior
2) ulnar collateral: stretched during abduction
3) radial collateral: stretched during adduction

550
Q

radiocarpal joint capsule contents

A

1) distal radioulnar joint
2) intercarpal joints

*ulna not included in wrist joint!

551
Q

radiocarpal joint movements

A

1) flex/ex
2) abd/add

552
Q

how do skeletal muscles produce movement?

A

work together to pull on bones (cross joint that they move)

553
Q

agonist (prime mover)

A

muscle that provides major force for producing a movement

554
Q

antagonist

A

muscle that opposes action of agonist, located on opposite side of joint

555
Q

fixators

A

when agonists and antagonists contract simultaneously

556
Q

synergists

A

help agonist by adding extra force to the same movement

557
Q

concentric contraction

A

muscles shorten under tension

558
Q

origin vs insertion

A
  • origin: attachment point that often stays fixed during muscle contraction, usually proximal
  • insertion: moves closer to origin during contraction, usually distal
559
Q

muscles that move pectoral girdle location and function

A
  • anterior and posterior thorax
  • fix scapula to wall of thorax
  • move pectoral girdle
560
Q

pectoral girdle muscles

A

1) trapezius
2) levator scapulae
3) rhomboid major/minor

561
Q

trapezius origin

A

occipital bone, nuchal ligament, spinous processes of C7-T12

562
Q

trapezius insertion

A

spine of scapula, lateral clavicle, acromion

563
Q

trapezius action

A

1) upper fibers: elevate scapula
2) middle fibers: retract scapula
3) lower fibers: depress scapula
4) upper and lower: upward rotation of scapula

564
Q

trapezius nerve

A

accessory nerve (CN XI)

565
Q

levator scapulae and rhomboid locations

A

deep to trapezius, levator scapulae is superior and lateral to rhomboids

566
Q

levator scapulae and rhomboid origin

A

C1-T5 mnemonic: 4, 2, 2, 4

C1-C4 (transverse processes: levator scapulae
C5-6 skip
C7-T1 (spinous processes): rhomboid minor
T2-T5 (spinous processes): rhomboid major

567
Q

levator scapulae and rhomboids insertion

A
  • medial border of scapula
  • levator scapulae above spine, rhomboids below
568
Q

levator scapulae and rhomboid actions

A
  • levator scapulae: elevate and downward rotation of scapula
  • rhomboids: retract and downward rotation of scapula
569
Q

levator scapulae and rhomboid nerve

A

dorsal scapular nerve

570
Q

anterior thoracic muscles

A

1) subclavius
2) pectoralis minor
3) serratus anterior (“boxer’s muscle”)

571
Q

subclavius origin

A

side of manubrium

572
Q

subclavius insertion

A

underside of clavicle

573
Q

subclavius action

A

stabilize and depress clavicle

574
Q

subclavius nerve

A

nerve to subclavius

575
Q

serratus anterior origin

576
Q

serratus anterior insertion

A

medial border of scapula (wraps around)

577
Q

serratus anterior action

A

protraction and upward rotation of scapula

578
Q

serratus anterior nerve

A

long thoracic nerve

579
Q

pectoralis minor origin

580
Q

pectoralis minor insertion

A

coracoid process

581
Q

pectoralis minor action

A

stabilize scapula by drawing it inferiorly and anteriorly

582
Q

pectoralis minor nerve

A

medial pectoral nerve

583
Q

winged scapula

A
  • impaired serratus anterior causes protrusion of scapula when arms raised
584
Q

muscles that move the glenohumeral joint

A

anterior:
1) pectoralis major
posterior:
2) deltoid
3) teres major
4) latissimus dorsi
lateral:
5) rotator cuff muscles

585
Q

rotator cuff muscles

A

1) supraspinatus
2) infraspinatus
3) teres minor
4) subscapularis

586
Q

pectoralis major structure

A

large, fan-shaped muscle with two “heads”: clavicular and sternocostal

587
Q

pectoralis major origin

A

medial clavicle, sternum, costal cartilages of ribs 1-6

588
Q

pectoralis major insertion

A

intertubercular sulcus of humerus

589
Q

pectoralis major actions

A
  • clavicular head: flex GH joint
  • sternocostal head: adduct and medial rotation of GH joint
  • lower fibers of sternocostal head: extends GH joint from flexed position
590
Q

pectoralis major nerve

A

medial and lateral pectoral nerves

591
Q

deltoid origin

A

lateral clavicle, acromion, spine of scapula

592
Q

deltoid insertion

A

deltoid tuberosity of humerus

593
Q

deltoid actions

A
  • all fibers: abduct GH joint
  • anterior part: flex and medial rotation of GH joint
  • posterior part: opposite of anterior = extend and lateral rotation of GH joint
594
Q

deltoid nerve

A

axillary nerve

595
Q

teres major origin

A

dorsal region of inferior scapula

596
Q

teres major insertion

A

intertubercular sulcus of humerus

597
Q

teres major action

A

adduct and medially rotate GH joint

598
Q

teres major nerve

A

lower subscapular nerve

599
Q

latissimus dorsi origin

A

very broad along spine

600
Q

latissimus dorsi insertion

A

intertubercular sulcus (humerus)

601
Q

latissimus dorsi action

A

extend, adduct, medially rotate GH joint

602
Q

latissimus dorsi nerve

A

thoracodorsal nerve

603
Q

intertubercular sulcus muscles (insertions)

A

P.L.T (lateral to medial)

pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, teres major

604
Q

teres major and latissimus dorsi relationship

A

teres major = synergist to latissimus dorsi

605
Q

rotator cuff muscle function

A
  • rotate humerus
  • stabilize GH joint
606
Q

rotator cuff muscles

A

1) supraspinatus
2) infraspinatus
3) teres minor
4) subscapularis

607
Q

subscapularis origin and insertion

A

origin = subscapular fossa
insertion = lesser tubercle

608
Q

subscapularis action

A

medial rotation

609
Q

subscapularis innervation

A

upper/lower subscapular nerves

610
Q

supraspinatus origin/insertion

A

supraspinous fossa, greater tubercle

611
Q

supraspinatus action

A

abduction (NO rotation!)

612
Q

supraspinatus innervation

A

suprascapular nerve

613
Q

infraspinatus origin and insertion

A

infraspinous fossa, greater tubercle

614
Q

infraspinatus action

A

lateral rotation

615
Q

infraspinatus nerve

A

suprascapular nerve

616
Q

teres minor origin and insertion

A

lateral border of scapula, greater tubercle

617
Q

teres minor action

A

lateral rotation

618
Q

teres minor nerve

A

axillary nerve

619
Q

rotator cuff anterior/posterior muscles

A

anterior: supraspinatus, subscapularis
posterior: supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor

620
Q

axilla location

A

pyramidal space inferior to GH joint

621
Q

axilla purpose

A

protective passageway for neurovascular structures

622
Q

axilla apex

A

clavicle, 1st rib, superior border of scapula

623
Q

axilla lateral wall

A

intertubercular sulcus

624
Q

axilla medial wall

A

thoracic wall (some ribs), serratus anterior

625
Q

axilla base

A

armpit skin + subcutaneous CT

626
Q

axilla anterior wall

A

pectoralis major, pectoralis minor

627
Q

axilla posterior wall

A

scapula, subscapularis, teres major, latissimus dorsi

628
Q

axillary contents

A

1) axillary sheath: nerves and BVs
2) fat: protects sheath
3) lymph nodes: in fat

629
Q

axillary artery

A
  • branches from subclavian artery
  • begins at lateral border of rib 1
  • continues posterior to pectoralis minor
  • ends at inferior border of teres major
630
Q

axillary artery parts

A

1) before pec. minor:
a) superior thoracic branch
2) under pec. minor:
a) thoraco-acromial
b) lateral thoracic
3) after pec. minor:
a) posterior circumflex
b) anterior circumflex
c) subscapular: posterior scapula

631
Q

upper arm veins

A
  • deep veins accompany arteries (with same names)
632
Q

posterior/anterior circumflex branch of axillary artery

A
  • around surgical neck
  • can anastomose with each other
633
Q

brachial plexus parts

A

1) 5 roots (C5-T1)
2) 3 trunks: superior, middle, inferior
3) 2 divisions: anterior/posterior
4) 3 cords: lateral, posterior, medial
5) 5 terminal branches

Really Thirsty Drink Cold Beer

634
Q

terminal branches of brachial plexus

A

1) musculocutaneous
2) axillary (C5/6 only!)
3) median
4) radial
5) ulnar

635
Q

additional nerves of brachial plexus

A

1) C5: dorsal scapular
2) superior trunk: suprascapular
3) C5-7: long thoracic
4) lateral cord: lateral pectoral
5) medial cord: medial pectoral
6) posterior cord: upper/lower subscapular
7) posterior cord: thoracodorsal

636
Q

brachial plexus cord naming

A

named based on relationship to axillary artery

637
Q

brachial plexus drawing

638
Q

where do brachial plexus roots emerge from?

A
  • between anterior and middle scalene muscles
639
Q

axillary nerve location

A

around surgical neck of humerus

640
Q

arm muscle division

A
  • divided into two compartments by septa
641
Q

upper arm transverse section

A

1) skin
2) superficial fascia with superficial veins
3) brachial fascia
4) lateral and medial intermuscular septa
5) muscles
6) humerus

642
Q

anterior compartment arm muscles

A

1) biceps brachii
2) coracobrachialis
3) brachialis

643
Q

anterior compartment arm muscles nerve

A

musculocutaneous nerve

644
Q

posterior compartment arm muscles

A

1) triceps brachii
2) anconeus

645
Q

posterior compartment arm muscles nerve

A

radial nerve

646
Q

biceps brachii origin

A
  • long head: supraglenoid tubercle
  • short head: coracoid process
647
Q

biceps brachii heads

A

lateral long head, medial short head

648
Q

biceps brachii insertion

A
  • radial tuberosity and forearm fascia
  • via bicipital aponeurosis
649
Q

biceps brachii action

A
  • elbow flexion
  • radioulnar supination (when elbow flexed)
  • GH flexion (synergist)
650
Q

coracobrachialis origin and insertion

A

coracoid process, middle 1/3 of humerus

651
Q

coracobrachialis action

A

GH joint flexion

652
Q

brachialis origin and insertion

A

distal anterior surface of humerus, ulnar tuberosity

653
Q

brachialis location

A

deep to biceps brachii

654
Q

brachialis action

A

elbow flexion

655
Q

musculocutaneous nerve location

A
  • pierces coracobrachialis
  • continues distally between biceps brachii and brachialis
656
Q

proximal biceps brachii rupture

A

tendon comes off radial tuberosity leading to the popeye sign

657
Q

triceps head orientation

A

long and lateral heads superior to medial

658
Q

triceps brachii origin

A
  • long: infraglenoid tubercle
  • lateral: posterior surface of humerus ABOVE radial groove
  • medial: posterior surface of humerus BELOW radial groove
659
Q

triceps brachii insertion

A

olecranon process

660
Q

triceps action

A
  • extension of elbow
  • long head = extension at GH joint
661
Q

anconeus action

A

synergist to triceps brachii elbow movement and stabilizer

662
Q

radial nerve location

A
  • in radial groove
  • pierces lateral intermuscular septum
  • continues distally in anterior compartment of arm
663
Q

upper arm blood supply

A

1) brachial artery branches from axillary, runs along anterior surface of arm
2) deep brachial artery branches from brachial, runs in radial groove going posterior
3) collateral branches: from brachial artery
4) recurrent arteries: form arterial anastomoses around elbow

3/4: collateral flow ensures blood flow in different joint positions

664
Q

cubital fossa borders

A

1) superior: imaginary line between lateral and medial epicondyles
2) lateral: medial border or brachioradialis
3) medial: lateral border of pronator teres

665
Q

cubital fossa contents

A

lateral to medial: biceps brachii tendon, brachial artery, median nerve

666
Q

forearm muscles function

A

move hand at wrist and/or joints of fingers

667
Q

forearm muscle transverse section

A

1) skin
2) superficial fascia with superficial veins
3) antebrachial fascia: creates anterior/posterior compartment
4) radius + ulna: connected by interosseous membrane

668
Q

anterior forearm muscle layers

A

1) superficial
2) intermediate
3) deep

669
Q

anterior forearm common origin

A

superficial and intermediate muscles share common flexor tendon at medial epicondyle

670
Q

anterior forearm nerve

A

mostly median, with some exceptions

671
Q

anterior forearm superficial layer muscles and actions

A

1) pronator teres: protonation
2) flexor carpi radialis: major wrist flexor, abduction
3) palmaris longus: weak wrist flexor
4) flexor carpi ulnaris: major wrist flexor, adduction

672
Q

flexor retinaculum

A
  • anchors tendons of FCR/FCU
  • palmaris longus tendon lies overtop
673
Q

what is unique about palmaris longus?

A
  • vestigial
  • not every wrist has one
674
Q

anterior forearm intermediate layer muscles and actions

A

1) flexor digitorum superficialis: flexes metacarpophalangeal joint and proximal interphalangeal joints of 2-5, some wrist flexion

675
Q

flexor digitorum superficialis tendons

A
  • spilt at MCP to leave room for flexor digitorum profundus tendon
676
Q

anterior forearm deep layer muscles and actions

A

1) flexor digitorum profundus: flex MCP/PIP/DIP of 2-5
2) pronator quadratus: protonation
3) flexor pollicis longus: flex MCP/IP of thumb

677
Q

anterior forearm innervation exceptions

A

ulnar nerve = flexor carpi ulnaris and medial (vs lateral) half of FDP

678
Q

median nerve location

A
  • descends between FDS and FDP
  • continues into hand to innervate thenar muscles
679
Q

ulnar nerve location

A
  • posterior to medial epicondyle
  • descends between FCU and FDP
  • continues into hand to innervate intrinsic hand msucles
680
Q

carpal tunnel location

A
  • between carpal bones (CT and synovial membrane) and flexor retinaculum
681
Q

carpal tunnel contents

A
  • long flexor tendons of FDS (4), FDP (4) and FPL (1)
  • median nerve
682
Q

carpal tunnel syndrome

A
  • compression of median nerve
  • ex. build up of synovial fluid due to inflammation
  • chronic = muscle atrophy
683
Q

posterior forearm muscle layers

A

1) superficial
2) deep

684
Q

posterior forearm common origin

A

many attach on common extensor tendon on lateral epicondyle

685
Q

posterior forearm common nerve

A

radial nerve and deep branch of radial nerve

686
Q

extensor retinaculum

A
  • covers tendons of posterior forearm muscles
687
Q

posterior forearm superficial layer muscles and actions

A

1) brachioradialis: elbow flexion
2) extensor carpi radialis longus: main wrist extension, abduction
3) extensor carpi radialis brevis: main wrist extension, abduction
4) extensor digitorum: digits extension (primarily MCP, secondarily IP of 2-5)
5) extensor digiti minimi: extends fifth digit
6) extensor carpi ulnaris: main wrist extension, adduction

688
Q

what is special about brachioradialis?

A
  • can be seen from both anterior and posterior
  • transition between compartments
689
Q

ECRlongus vs ECRbrevis?

A

longus starts above lateral epicondyle

690
Q

extensor digitorum tendons pass under…

A
  • pass under extensor retinaculum
691
Q

extensor digitorum origin and insertion

A

common extension origin, extensor expansions of medial 4 digits

692
Q

extensor digitorum intertendinous connections

A
  • variable in people
  • restrict independent extension of digits
693
Q

posterior forearm deep layer function

A
  • act on pollex and index finger
  • except supinator
694
Q

posterior forearm deep layer common nerve

A

deep branch of radial nerve

695
Q

posterior forearm deep layer muscles

A

1) abductor pollicis longus: I = lateral aspect of thumb
2) extensor pollicis brevis
3) extensor pollicis longus
4) extensor indicis
5) supinator: supinate proximal radioulnar joint (works with biceps brachii)

*only supinator attaches to lat. epicondyle

696
Q

radial nerve location entire arm

A
  • perforates lateral intermuscular septum of arm: runs with radial groove with deep brachial artery
  • enters cubital fossa between brachioradialis and brachialis
697
Q

radial nerve branches

A

1) deep branch: pierces supinator, continues along interosseous membrane
2) superficial branch: cutaneous nerves, descends deep to brachioradialis

698
Q

blood supply of entire arm

A

1) subclavian
2) axillary
a) brachial artery: anterior compartment, divides in cubital region into radial/ulnar
b) deep brachial artery: runs posterior
4) collateral branching/anastomoses
5) radial artery
6) ulnar artery: three branches
a) common interosseous divides into:
b) anterior interosseous
c) posterior interosseous
7) deep and superficial palmar arches in hand: anastomoses

699
Q

radial artery location forearm

A
  • descends deep to brachioradialis
  • winds around lateral wrist (goes posterior) in anatomical snuff box
700
Q

ulnar artery location

A
  • descends deep to pronator teres
701
Q

forearm veins

A

deep veins accompany arteries, have same names

702
Q

superficial veins location

A

run subcutaneously in superficial fascia

703
Q

superficial veins function

A

venous return, temperature regulation

704
Q

superficial veins in arm

A

1) axillary vein
2) cephalic vein: from back of hand to axillary
3) basilic vein: medial side, from palm to axillary
4) median cubital vein: joins 2/3, common site for cannulation

705
Q

cannulation

A

inserting a cannula, a small tube, into a vein, artery, or other body cavity to provide access for fluids, medications, or blood sampling

706
Q

anatomical snuff box borders

A

1) floor: scaphoid and trapezium
2) lateral: tendons of extensor pollicis brevis and abductor pollicis longus
3) medial: tendon of extensor pollicis longus

707
Q

anatomical snuff box contents

A
  • branch of radial nerve
  • radial artery
  • cephalic vein
708
Q

lower limb bone functional division

A

1) pelvic girdle
2) bones of free lower limb

709
Q

lower limb bone articulations

A

primarily diarthroses and synovial joints

710
Q

lower limb bones structural division

A

1) thigh: hip to knee
2) leg: knee to ankle
3) foot: below ankle

711
Q

acetabulum features

A

1) lunate surface: smooth, where head of femur articulates
2) acetabular fossa: bony depression filled with fat
3) acetabular notch

712
Q

sacrospinous ligament

A
  • attaches from sacrum to ischial spine
  • creates foramina: greater/lesser sciatic foramen
713
Q

femur structures

A

1) head
2) neck
3) greater trochanter: lateral
4) lesser trochanter: medial
5) lateral/medial epicondyle
6) lateral/medial condyle
7) adductor tubercle

anterior only:
1) intertrochanteric line

posterior only:
1) intertrochanteric crest: more prominent than line
2) gluteal tuberosity
3) linea aspera
4) intercondylar fossa

714
Q

largest bone in the body?

715
Q

patella bone type

A

sesamoid: within tendons

716
Q

patella location

A

within quadriceps femoris tendon: convergence of quadriceps muscles

717
Q

patella in babies

A

not fully ossified

718
Q

patella function

A
  • protect knee joint
  • allow quadriceps femoris tendon to glide smoothly over joint: maximises movement
719
Q

patella structure

A
  • rough anterior: tendon attachment
  • smooth posterior: articular cartilage with femur
  • base
  • anterior apex
  • posterior facets
720
Q

why is tibia bigger than fibula?

A

tibia bears all the weight when standing

721
Q

fibula purpose?

A

muscle attachment and forms part of ankle joint

722
Q

tibia superior view

A

1) flat articular surfaces of condyles
2) intercondylar eminences
3) can see tibial tuberosity on anterior side

723
Q

tibia and fibula inferior view

A

1) lateral/medial malleolus
2) fibular notch
3) inferior articular surface

724
Q

tibia features

A

1) lateral tibial condyle
2) medial tibial condyle
3) tibial tuberosity: large, rough, for quadriceps femoris muscles
4) medial malleolus

725
Q

fibula features

A

1) head
2) neck
3) lateral malleolus

726
Q

tibia and fibula relative anatomy

A
  • tibia medial side
  • connected by interosseous membrane
727
Q

foot purpose

A
  • support body weight
  • act as lever to propel body forward in walking and running
728
Q

foot bone divisions

A

7 tarsals, 5 metatarsals, 14 phalanges

729
Q

foot tarsals

A

medial to lateral, proximal to distal
1) talus: on top of…
2) calcaneus: heel bone
3) navicular
4) cuboid
5) medial, intermediate and lateral cuneiform

730
Q

calcaneus features

A

1) calcaneal tuberosity: connects to calcaneal (Achilles) tendon
2) sustentaculum tali: holds up talus

731
Q

talus features

A

1) trochlea: articulates with mallei
2) head: articulates with navicular

732
Q

foot metatarsals

A

numbered big to small toe

733
Q

foot phalanges

A
  • only two for big toe
  • others have proximal, middle and distal
  • all long bones
734
Q

foot arches

A

1) medial and lateral longitudinal arches
2) transverse arch

735
Q

foot medial longitudinal arch

A

in most people
1) metatarsals 1-3
2) cuneiforms
3) navicular
4) talus
5) calcaneus

736
Q

foot lateral longitudinal arch

A

typically not as prominent as medial
1) calcaneus
2) cuboid
3) metatarsals 4-5

737
Q

foot transverse arch

A

1) bases of metatarsals 1-5
2) cuboid
3) cuneiforms
4) muscle tendons

738
Q

support of foot arches

A

1) shape of bones
2) ligaments: spring, long/short plantar ligaments
3) intrinsic foot muscles and muscle tendons
4) plantar aponeurosis

739
Q

pes planus

A
  • flat feet
  • medial longitudinal arch affected
  • causes: bone development, ligament/muscle injury, excess weight
740
Q

ankle (talocrural) joint type

A

hinge synovial: thin joint capsule reinforced by collateral ligaments

741
Q

ankle joint articulation

A
  • malleoli of tibia and fibula form mortise (deep socket): articulates with trochlea of talus
742
Q

ankle joint movements

A

1) dorsiflexion: flex foot
2) plantarflexion: point foot

743
Q

why is dorsiflexion more stable?

A
  • trochlea widest anteriorly
  • fits between trochlea and mortise tightest and with more articulation
744
Q

ankle joint ligaments

A

1) anterior and posterior tibiofibular ligaments: reinforce mortise
2) lateral ligament of ankle: three bands that stabilize ankle during inversion
a) anterior talofibular ligament
b) calcaneofibular ligament
c) posterior talofibular ligament
3) medial (deltoid) ligament: stabilizes ankle during eversion

745
Q

subtalar tarsal joint

A

plane synovial joint between talus and calcaneus

746
Q

transverse tarsal joint

A

plane synovial joint between talus and navicular

747
Q

subtalar and transverse tarsal joint movements

A

1) eversion: sole away from body
2) inversion: sole towards body

748
Q

sacroiliac joints type

A

compound joint:
1) synovial plane: auricular surfaces of ilium and sacrum
2) syndesmosis: connected by fibrous CT

749
Q

sacroiliac joint characteristics

A
  • connects axial skeleton and inferior appendicular skeleton
  • strong, weight-bearing
  • limited mobility
750
Q

sacroiliac joint intrinsic ligaments

A

1) anterior sacroiliac
2) posterior sacroiliac
3) interosseous sacroiliac (many)

751
Q

sacroiliac joint extrinsic ligaments

A

1) sacrospinous: sacrum to ischial spine
2) sacrotuberous: sacrum to ischial tuberosity

752
Q

sacroiliac joint extrinsic ligament function

A
  • prevent excess anterior rotation of pelvis
  • weight of body passes anterior to axis of rotation of sacroiliac joint
753
Q

hip joint type

A

ball and socket synovial

754
Q

hip joint articulation

A

head of femur + lunate surface of acetabulum

755
Q

hip joint supporting structures

A

1) fat pad
2) transverse acetabular ligament: spans acetabular notch, merges with…
3) acetabular labrum: around acetabulum, extend depth of articulation (2/3 sphere)
4) joint capsule
5) ligament of femoral head: not as important for stability, but makes path for BV

756
Q

hip joint movements

A

1) flex/ex
2) abd/ad
3) medial/lateral rotation

757
Q

hip joint intrinsic ligaments

A
  • all spiral anteriorly and become taut during extension

1) iliofemoral: ilium to femur (intertrochanteric line), strongest ligament in the body
2) pubofemoral: limits overabduction
3) ischiofemoral

758
Q

knee joint type

A

modified hinge synovial joint

759
Q

knee joint articulations

A

1) femorotibial: condyles of femur + tibia
2) femoropatellar: facets of patella + condyles of femur

760
Q

lateral and medial meniscii

A
  • between femorotibial articulations
  • stabilize, increase articulation and absorb shock
761
Q

knee joint actions

A

flex/ex and slight rotation (two axes)

762
Q

knee joint ligaments

A

1) fibular (lateral) collateral
2) tibial (medial) collateral
3) posterior cruciate ligament
4) anterior cruciate ligament
5) patellar ligament and tendon (quadriceps)

763
Q

fibular collateral ligament

A
  • stability during extension
  • separate from meniscus
764
Q

tibial collateral ligament

A
  • stability during extension
  • direct attachment to meniscus
765
Q

posterior cruciate ligament

A
  • from posterior tibia
  • prevents anterior sliding of femur on tibia, especially during flexion
766
Q

anterior cruciate ligament

A
  • from anterior tibia
    -prevents posterior sliding (hyperextension)
767
Q

testing for cruciate ligament tears

A

1) anterior drawer sign: pull anteriorly for ACL
2) posterior drawer sign: push posteriorly for PCL

768
Q

muscle groups that move hip joint

A

1) gluteal
2) lateral rotators
3) iliopsoas
4) adductors

769
Q

gluteal muscles

A

1) gluteus maximus, partially layered over…
2) gluteus medius: slightly lateral
3) gluteus minimis: deep to all, slightly lateral
4) tensor fasciae latae (TFL): lateral

770
Q

gluteus maximus origin and insertion

A

O: iliac crest, sacrum, coccyx
I: gluteal tuberosity and posterior iliotibial tract

771
Q

gluteus maximus nerve

A

inferior gluteal nerve

772
Q

gluteus maximus action

A

extension and lateral rotation of hip joint

773
Q

gluteus medius/minimis nerve

A

superior gluteal

774
Q

gluteus medius/minimis action

A

abduction, medial rotation of hip joint

775
Q

gluteus medius/minims origin and insertion

A

O: external ilium
I: greater trochanter

776
Q

tensor fasciae latae action

A
  • tense iliotibial tract (anterior)
  • assist with flexion, abduction and medial rotation of hip joint
777
Q

tensor fasciae nerve

A

superior gluteal

778
Q

muscles during single leg stance

A
  • abductors on opposite side of lifted leg contract
  • keeps pelvis level by counteracting force of gravity
779
Q

trendelenburg gait

A
  • compromised abductors
  • pelvis drops to contralateral side during single leg stance
780
Q

lateral rotator muscles

A

1) piriformis
2) superior gemellus
3) obturator internus
4) inferior gemellus
5) obturator externus
6) quadratus femoris

P-GO-GO-Q

781
Q

lateral rotators general origin and insertion

A

pelvis to greater trochanter

782
Q

lateral rotators action

A
  • lateral rotation of extended hip joint
  • abduct flexed hip joint
  • stabilize hip by pulling head of femur into acetabulum
783
Q

lateral rotators location

A
  • run horizontally posterior to hip joint
  • under gluteus maximus
  • inferior to gluteus medius and minimis
784
Q

lateral rotators nerve

A

branches from lumbosacral plexus

785
Q

lateral rotators along sciatic notches

A
  • greater: piriformis
  • lesser: obturator internus
786
Q

obturator internus vs externus

A
  • both cover obturator foramen
  • externus = external aspect, internus = internal
787
Q

sciatic nerve location

A

emerges below piriformis

788
Q

iliopsoas parts

A
  • composite muscle: psoas major and iliacus
  • merge beneath inguinal ligament
789
Q

psoas major origin

A

lumbar vertebrae

790
Q

iliacus origin

A

iliac fossa

791
Q

iliopsoas common insertion

A

lesser trochanter

792
Q

psoas major nerve

A

branches of lumbar plexus

793
Q

iliacus nerve

794
Q

iliopsoas action

A

hip flexors

795
Q

adductor muscles

A

1) pectineus: same plane as…
2) adductor longus
3) adductor brevis: deep to 1)
4) adductor magnus: adductor and hamstring, deep to 1-3
5) gracilis: also crosses posterior knee

796
Q

adductor muscles common origin

A

external pubis

797
Q

adductor muscles common insertion

A

linea aspera, except gracilis = anterior tibia

798
Q

adductor muscles common nerve

A

obturator nerve, except hamstring of adductor magnus by tibial division of sciatic nerve

799
Q

adductor muscles common action

A

hip adduction, except gracilis also does knee flexion

800
Q

adductor hiatus

A

gap in adductor magnus where BVs pass through

801
Q

parts of adductor magnus

A
  • anterior adductor part
  • posterior hamstring part, connected to sacrotuberous ligament
802
Q

lumbar plexus rami

A

anterior rami of L1-L4

803
Q

lumbar plexus location

A

formed within psoas major and innervates it

804
Q

lumbar plexus end nerves

A

abdominal wall:
1) iliohypogastric nerve: L1
2) ilioinguinal nerve: L1
lumbar region:
3) obturator nerve: L2-L4
4) femoral nerve: L2-L4

805
Q

obturator nerve location

A
  • enters medial compartment of thigh via obturator canal: gap of obturator foramen
  • accompanied by obturator vessels
806
Q

femoral nerve location

A
  • passes deep to inguinal ligament into anterior thigh
  • accompanied by femoral vessels
807
Q

sacral plexus rami

A
  • anterior rami of L4-S4
808
Q

sacral plexus nerves

A

1) lumbosacral trunk: L4-S5
sacral part:
2) superior gluteal nerve: L4-S1
3) inferior gluteal nerve: L5-S2
4) sciatic nerve: L4-S3

809
Q

superior gluteal nerve location

A
  • passes through greater sciatic foramen SUPERIOR to piriformis
  • accompanied by superior gluteal vessels
810
Q

inferior gluteal nerve location

A
  • passes through greater sciatic foramen INFERIOR to piriformis
  • accompanied by inferior gluteal vessels
811
Q

sciatic nerve location

A
  • passes through greater sciatic foramen INFERIOR to piriformis
  • goes to posterior thigh
  • consists of tibial and common fibular divisions
812
Q

thigh blood supply

A

1) aorta
2) common iliac arteries:
a) internal iliac artery: gives rise to superior/inferior gluteal arteries and obturator artery
b) external iliac artery: becomes 3) below inguinal ligament
3) femoral artery: becomes
4) deep femoral artery: chief artery, gives rise to medial and lateral femoral circumflex and perforating branches

*deep veins accompany arteries

813
Q

thigh cross section

A

1) skin
2) superficial fascia with veins
3) fascia lata
4) anterior, medial and posterior compartments
5) femur

814
Q

anterior thigh muscles

A

1) sartorius
2) quadriceps femoris:
a) rectus femoris
b) vastus lateralis
c) vastus medialis
d) vastus intermedius

815
Q

anterior thigh common action

A

knee extension (except sartorius)

816
Q

anterior thigh common nerve

817
Q

iliotibial tract formed by…

A

thickening of fascia lata + muscles (gluteus maximus)

818
Q

sartorius origin and insertion

A

anterior superior iliac spine, medial tibia

819
Q

sartorius actions

A

1) hip flexion, abduction and lateral rotation
2) knee flexion

820
Q

quadriceps muscle origins

A

1) rectus femoris: anterior inferior iliac spine
2) vastus lateralis: greater trochanter
3) medialis: femur
4) intermedius: femur

821
Q

quadriceps muscles common insertion

A
  • over patella –> patellar ligament –> tibial tuberosity
822
Q

quadriceps muscles arrangment

A
  • rectus femoris most superficial
  • intermedius deep to RF
  • lateralis = lateral, medialis = medial, goes a little more distal
823
Q

quadriceps muscles actions

A
  • all extend knee joint
  • rectus femoris can also flex hip
824
Q

which quadriceps muscles stabilize knee joint?

A

all, but especially inferior fibers of vastus medialis and lateralis

825
Q

femoral triangle location

A
  • subfascial space in anterosuperior 1/3 of thigh
826
Q

femoral triangle boundaries

A

1) floor (deep): iliopsoas and pectineus
2) roof (more superficial): fascia lata, subcutaneous tissue, skin
3) superior: inguinal ligament
4) medial: adductor longus
5) lateral: sartorius

827
Q

femoral triangle contents

A

NAVL lateral to medial:
Nerve
femoral Artery
femoral Vein
Lymphatics

828
Q

femoral canal

A
  • in femoral triangle
  • formed by femoral sheath
  • contain artery, vein and lymphatics
829
Q

groin injuries

A
  • strain, stretch or tear of proximal attachments of anteromedial thigh muscles
  • often occur in sports with quick starts, ex. sprints
830
Q

posterior thigh muscles (hamstring muscles)

A

1) biceps femoris
2) semimembranosus
3) semitendinosus

831
Q

posterior thigh common origin

A

ischial tuberosity, except short head of biceps femoris = linea aspera

832
Q

posterior thigh common action

A

1) hip extension (except short head)
2) knee flexion

833
Q

posterior thigh common nerve

A

tibial division of sciatic, except short head = common fibular division

834
Q

biceps femoris insertion

835
Q

semimembranosus characteristics

A

deep to semitendinosus, ligament broadens distally

836
Q

biceps femoris heads

A

medial long, lateral short (under iliotibial tract)

837
Q

semimembranosus insertion

A

medial condyle of tibia

838
Q

semitendinosus characteristics

A
  • ends in long, thin tendon
  • more superficial than semimembranosus
839
Q

semitendinosus insertion

A

medial tibia

840
Q

pes anserinus components

A

conjoined tendon of:
1) sartorius
2) gracillis
3) semitendinous

841
Q

pes anserinus location

A

anteromedial side of proximal tibia

842
Q

pes anserinus function

A

reinforce medial aspect of knee joint

843
Q

femoral artery location

A
  • passes through femoral triangle and adductor canal
  • supplies anterior thigh compartment
844
Q

deep femoral artery location

A
  • passes deep between pectineus and adductor longus
  • supplies posterior thigh compartment
845
Q

adductor hiatus close arteries

A
  • femoral artery passes posterior here to become popliteal artery
  • part of abductor magnus
846
Q

popliteal artery location

A
  • ends at inferior border of popliteus
  • branches around knee
847
Q

popliteal fossa location

A
  • fat-filled, diamond shaped space posterior to knee joint
848
Q

popliteal fossa boundaries

A

1) roof (superficial: skin, popliteal fascia
2) floor: femur, knee joint capsule, fascia of popliteus
3) medial: semimembranosus superior to medial head of gastrocnemius
4) lateral: biceps femoris, lateral head of gastrocnemius

849
Q

leg transverse section

A

1) skin
2) superficial fascia with veins
3) crural fascia: forms anterior, posterior and transverse intermuscular septae
4) 3 compartments
a) anterior: interosseus membrane and anterior septum
b) medial: anterior/posterior septa
c) posterior: interosseus membrane and posterior septum, transverse separates deep from superficial)

850
Q

leg retinaculae

A
  • thickening of fascia at distal leg
  • hold muscle tendons in place as they cross ankle joint
  • ex. inferior extensor retinaculum
851
Q

common action of leg tendons

A

tendons passing:
1) posterior to ankle = plantarflexion
2) anterior to ankle = dorsiflexion
3) dorsal toes: extension
4) plantar toes: flexion

tendons attaching to:
1) medial foot: inversion
2) lateral foot: eversion

852
Q

anterior leg muscles

A

1) tibialis anterior
2) extensor digitorum longus
3) extensor hallucis longus
4) fibularis tertius

1-3 superficial to deep

853
Q

tibialis anterior origin and insertion

A

lateral condyle of tibia, medial side of foot (medial cuneiform + metatarsal 1 base)

854
Q

tibialis anterior actions

A

inversion + dorsiflexion of foot

855
Q

extensor digitorum longus origin/insertion

A

lateral condyle of tibia, dorsal aspect of digits 2-5

856
Q

extensor digitorum longus action

A

dorsiflexion, extension of toes 2-5

857
Q

extensor hallucis longus origin and insertion

A

medial fibula to dorsal digit 1

858
Q

big toe anatomical name

859
Q

extensor hallucis longus action

A

hallux extension, dorsiflexion

860
Q

fibularis tertius origin and insertion

A

inferior/anterior fibula, dorsal digit 5

861
Q

fibularis tertius action

A

dorsiflexion, eversion of foot

862
Q

anterior leg muscles common nerve

A

deep fibular

863
Q

lateral leg muscles

A

1) fibularis longus
2) fibularis brevis (deep)

864
Q

fibularis longus origin and insertion

A

head of fibula, plantar surface of foot (crosses from lateral to medial side)

865
Q

fibularis brevis origin and insertion

A

lateral fibula, base of 5th metatarsal

866
Q

fibularis longus/brevis action

A

eversion, plantarflexion of foot

867
Q

fibularis longus/brevis nerve

A

superficial fibular

868
Q

foot drop

A
  • foot drags instead of anterior part lifting
  • compromised deep fibular nerve
869
Q

posterior leg compartments

A

1) superficial
2) deep

870
Q

superficial posterior leg muscles

A

1) gastrocnemius
2) soleus
3) plantaris

superficial to deep: 1, 3, 2

871
Q

gastrocnemius origin

A

medial and lateral femoral condyles (2 heads)

872
Q

soleus origin

A

posterior, proximal tibia and fibular head

873
Q

plantaris origin

A

above lateral femoral condyle

874
Q

superficial posterior leg muscles common insertion

A

calcaneus via calcaneal tendon (Achilles)

875
Q

superficial posterior leg muscles common action

A

plantar flexion

876
Q

superficial posterior leg muscles additional actions

A

gastrocnemius flexes knee, plantaris weakly assists

877
Q

superficial posterior leg muscles common nerve

A

tibial nerve

878
Q

flexor retinaculum of foot

A
  • supports tendons of deep posterior leg muscles
  • medial malleolus to calcaneus
  • reinforced by transverse intermuscular septum
879
Q

posterior leg deep compartment

A

1) flexor digitorum longus
2) flexor hallucis longus
3) tibialis posterior
4) popliteus

880
Q

deep posterior leg muscles tendons organization

A

superior/medial
1) tibialis posterior
2) flexor digitorum longus
3) flexor hallucis longus
inferior/lateral

Tom, Dick, Harry

881
Q

flexor digitorum longus origin/insertion

A

posterior tibia, bases of distal phalanges 2-5

882
Q

flexor digitorum longus action

A

flexes digits 2-5

883
Q

flexor hallucis longus origin/insertion

A

inferior/posterior fibula, base of distal phalanx 1

884
Q

flexor hallucis longus action

A

flexes hallux

885
Q

tibialis posterior origin/insertion

A

origin = interosseous membrane, posterior tibia and fibula
insertion = navicular, cuneiforms, cuboid, calcaneus (sustentaculum tali), bases of metatarsals 2-4

886
Q

tibialis posterior action

A

inversion, plantarflexion, support medial longitudinal arch

887
Q

popliteus characteristics

A

triangle-shaped, forms floor of popliteal fossa

888
Q

popliteus origin and insertion

A

origin = lateral condyle of femur, lateral meniscus
insertion = posterior proximal tibia

889
Q

popliteus action

A

unlocks knee by rotating femur slightly to enable knee flexion

890
Q

posterior deep leg muscles common action

A

plantarflexion, except popliteus

891
Q

posterior deep leg muscles common nerve

892
Q

lower leg innervation

A

1) sciatic nerve branches into:
2a) common fibular nerve: branches into
3a) superficial fibular nerve: lateral compartment
3b) deep fibular nerve: anterior compartment
2b) tibial nerve: posterior compartment with tibialis posterior, branches into
3c) medial and lateral plantar nerves

893
Q

leg arteries

A

1) (superficial) femoral artery
2) popliteal artery branches into
3a) anterior tibial artery: anterior compartment, also supplies lateral
4a) dorsalis pedis artery after extensor retinaculum
3b) posterior tibial artery: posterior compartment, also lateral, branches:
4b) fibular artery: posterior leg, near posterior septum
4c) medial and lateral plantar arteries after flexor retinaculum

894
Q

leg deep veins

A

accompany arteries with same name

895
Q

leg superficial veins

A

1) femoral vein
medial side:
2) dorsal venous arch empties into…
3) great saphenous vein, empties into 1)
posterior side:
4) small saphenous vein empties into popliteal vein

896
Q

intrinsic back muscles location

A
  • deepest muscles
  • enclosed in deep fascia
897
Q

intrinsic back muscles general purpose

A

movement and maintain posture of vertebral column

898
Q

intrinsic back muscles common origin

A
  • tendinous connection from posterior iliac crest, sacrum and spinous processes of lumbar vertebrae
  • insert above
899
Q

intrinsic back muscles common nerve

A

posterior rami of spinal nerves

900
Q

nuchal ligament

A

from external occipital protuberance to C7 (spinous processes)

901
Q

supraspinous ligament

A

thoracic vertebrae and below until median sacral crest

902
Q

intrinsic back muscles layers

A

1) superficial: splenius
2) intermediate: 3x erector spinae
3) deep: transversospinalis muscle group

903
Q

intrinsic back muscles bilateral contraction

A

extension of head and vertebral column

904
Q

intrinsic back muscles division

A

divided into parts: capitis, cervicis, thoracis, lumborum

905
Q

splenius parts

A

1) capitis
2) cervicis

906
Q

splenius location

A
  • deep to trapezius
  • fibers run superolaterally to cervical vertebrae and cranium (V shape)
907
Q

splenius origin

A

nucheal ligament

908
Q

splenius unilateral contraction

A

ipsilateral head rotation and neck lateral flexion

909
Q

erector spinae location

A
  • column of muscles from sacrum to skull
  • between spinous processes and angle of ribs
910
Q

erector spinae origin

A
  • tendinous connection from posterior iliac crest, sacrum and spinous processes of lumbar vertebrae
911
Q

erector spinae muscles

A

lateral (longer)
1) iliocostalis
2) longissimus
3) spinalis
medial (shorter)

I Like Standing

912
Q

erector spinae unilateral contraction

A

ipsilateral:
1) lateral flexion of VC
2) head rotation
3) spine rotation

913
Q

iliocostalis insertion

A

transverse processes of cervical vertebrae

914
Q

longissimus insertion

A
  • ribs
  • transverse processes of thoracic/cervical vertebrae
  • temporal bone mastoid process
915
Q

spinalis insertion

A

spinous processes of upper thoracic vertebrae + skull

916
Q

transversospinalis group location

A

deep to erector spinae, fibers run superomedially (A shape)

917
Q

transversospinalis muscle groups

A

1) semispinalis: capitis, cervitis, lumborum
2) short muscles that extend from 1 vertebrae to the next

918
Q

transversospinalis group unilateral contraction

A

contralateral head and VC rotation