L4 - Attitudes and Behaviour

Question 1

How do you give feedback that suits different MBTI profiles?

Answer 1

• For ‘E’: be prepared for them to need to talk about the feedback
• For ‘I’: give them time with the feedback before talking
• For ‘S’: give specific
  examples, linked to criteria
• For ‘N’: focus on overall impact, identify themes, patterns
• For ‘T’: explain cause and effect, use brief and concise language, link carefully to the brief
• For ‘F’: soften critical remarks, find positive, offer alternative solutions
• For ‘J’: appreciate conciseness and focus on delivering to plan, identify possible steps / stages of improvement between now and the exam, perhaps encourage more exploration?
• For ‘P’: appreciate exploration, perhaps encourage development of more structured planning?

Question 2

What are different factors that can affect behaviour?

Answer 2

• Willpower and motivation
• family
• friends
• education
• knowledge and skills
• Culture
• Financial situation
• Beliefs
• Fear

Question 3

How is Attitude defined?

Answer 3

• a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related (Allport 1935, p.810))

Question 4

What is the Tripartite model of Attitude (Breckler, 1984)?

Answer 4

• (Breckler, 1984)
• model that says that attitudes structure can be described in terms of three components:
• Affective –>his involves a person’s feelings / emotions about the attitude object –> how a workers feels about their job or organisation
• Behavioural (or conative) –> the way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave –> How a worker is predisposed to behave in his or her job or organisation
• Congnitive –> : this involves a person’s belief / knowledge about an attitude object –> What a worker believes to be true about his or her job or organisation

This leads to work attitudes –> Collections of feelings, beliefs, and predispositions to behave in one’s job and organisation

Question 5

why might attitudes matter to organisations?

Answer 5

It’s easier to train aptitude than attitude. –> When people have the right attitude they are both motivated and adaptable which makes them more open to learning new skills. With the right attitude and enough effort most new skills can be mastered quickly. Whereas improving attitude is often about changing behaviors which is always much more difficult to do, as people need to want to change and without the right attitude this is unlikely to happen.
- Attitude can impact overall performance.
- The right attitude can overcome obstacles. –>
We’ve all heard the saying “when the going gets tough, the tough get going.” Well if it were about having the right aptitude then saying would be ‘when the going gets tough, the smart get going’. But it’s not.

Question 6

How can Attitudes be changed through Persuasion?

Answer 6

• Communicator credibility: expertness and trustworthiness
• Communicator attractiveness –> likeability
• One-sided versus two-sided arguments –>more persuasive
• Use of fear –> only works for short-term
• Social pressures in persuasion
• Events before the persuasive message
• Central versus peripheral routes to persuasion –> don’t go straight to the point - go around around edge

Question 7

What is the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1988)?

Answer 7

(Ajzen, 1988)

• The theory was intended to explain all behaviors over which people have the ability to exert self-control.
• The key component to this model is behavioral intent; behavioral intentions are influenced by the attitude about the likelihood that the behavior will have the expected outcome and the subjective evaluation of the risks and benefits of that outcome.

Question 8

What does the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1988) tell us?

Answer 8

• The TPB states that behavioral achievement depends on both motivation (intention) and ability (behavioral control). It distinguishes between three types of beliefs - behavioral, normative, and control.
  Attitudes –>This refers to the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior of interest. It entails a consideration of the outcomes of performing the behavior. e.g.smoking is bad for you. costs alot of money, difficult to stop
  -Subjective norms –> This refers to the belief about whether most people approve or disapprove of the behavior. It relates to a person’s beliefs about whether peers and people of importance to the person think he or she should engage in the behavior. e.g. I would be the only smoker in my peer group, my friends dont like smoking
• Perceived behavioral control –> This refers to a person’s perception of the ease or difficulty of performing the behavior of interest. Perceived behavioral control varies across situations and actions, which results in a person having varying perceptions of behavioral control depending on the situation e.g. im not sure i could stop smoking when i want to
• This all leads to your behavioural intentions which lead to actual behaviour

Question 9

What are some limitations of What does the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1988) tell us?

Answer 9

• It assumes the person has acquired the opportunities and resources to be successful in performing the desired behavior, regardless of the intention.
• It does not account for other variables that factor into behavioral intention and motivation, such as fear, threat, mood, or past experience.
• While it does consider normative influences, it still does not take into account environmental or economic factors that may influence a person’s intention to perform a behavior.
• It assumes that behavior is the result of a linear decision-making process, and does not consider that it can change over time.
• While the added construct of perceived behavioral control was an important addition to the theory, it doesn’t say anything about actual control over behavior.
• The time frame between “intent” and “behavioral action” is not addressed by the theory.
• However, Ajzen (1985) was not arguing that human actions are based on rational thought – his model is just a simplification of some of the influences.

Question 10

How was Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1988) applied by the government to tackle smokers?

Answer 10

Applying the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the government attempts to influence:

• Our attitudes to smoking
• Positive about non-smokers
• Negative about smokers
• Our perception of what is ‘the norm’, what regular other people do
• Our belief that we CAN control our behaviour

Question 11

What are the two types of conditioning?

Answer 11

Classical conditioning –>automatic response
Operant conditioning –> learned and reinforced response

Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior through the use of positive and negative reinforcement.

Question 12

What is the Operant Conditioning Theory (Skinner, 1938)?

Answer 12

• The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment
• can split into Reinforcement ( increases Behaviour) and Punishment (decrease behaviour)

Question 13

What comes under the Reinforcement section of the Operant Conditioning Theory (Skinner, 1938)?

Answer 13

• Positive –> Add positive (appetitive) stimulus e.g. a treat
• Negative –> can be split into Escape and Active Avoidance
• Escape –> Remove noxious stimuli following correct behaviour e.g. putting cream on a skin rash to remove pain
• Active Avoidance –> Correct behaviour avoids noxious stimulus e.g. handling work in on time to avoid reprimand

Question 14

What comes under the Punishment section of the Operant Conditioning Theory (Skinner, 1938)?

Answer 14

• Positive –> Add noxious stimulus, follow behaviour e.g. reprimand person for late submission of work
• Negative –> Remove positive stimulus following incorrect behaviour e.g. take away work privileges

Question 15

What is the Evaluation of the Operant Conditioning Theory (Skinner, 1938)?

Answer 15

• Focuses on behaviour – and can work if the target behaviour is completely clear. Often used in areas such as Health & Safety
• Can be expensive to maintain. If the target behaviour is only achieved through a stimulus – reward/punishment, it is likely to stop if the reward/punishment disappears
• Does not engage the individual in any thought-through response. Is not ‘owned’ by the individual

Question 16

What is Organisational Behaviour Modification (Luthans and Kreitner, 1975)?

Answer 16

• based on operant condition it is a way to change behaviours of employees such as : Reducing employee lateness, Improving safety, Improving productivity, Improving customer service:

Question 17

What are the 5 steps of Organisational Behaviour Modification (Luthans and Kreitner, 1975)?

Answer 17

1. Identify the observable objective measureable behaviours relevant to the desired organisational performance
2. Measure the frequency with which those behaviours occur under normal conditions –> Baseline performance data
3. Determine the causes of the behaviour, factors which reinforce this behaviour and consequences of the behaviour
4. Develop an intervention strategy to increase desired behaviour and decrease undesired behaviour, through use of operant conditioning, reinforcement… punishment
5. Measure and evaluate systematically (using baseline data) the extent of behaviour change i.e. the improvement in performance

Question 18

What is Social Learn Theory (Bandura, 1971)?

Answer 18

• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling
  -In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas:
  1- Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.
  2-Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.

Question 19

How can you apply Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1971)?

Answer 19

• Start with a ‘model’ – an example of what the manager / trainer wants the other person / people to behave like / achieve. then go through the 4 steps:
• Attention
• Retention
• Reproduction
• Motivation

Question 20

What happen during the Attention process of Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1971)?

Answer 20

A focus on the stimuli to ensure that they are distinctive (stick out from other examples); have affective valenoce (have some value for the learner in terms of emotional response); have appropriate levels of complexity to engage the learner; have functional value (the learner can see some purpose in paying attention).

Question 21

What happen during the Retention process of Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1971)?

Answer 21

This is where the learner analyses what they are observing and applies some kind of coding to it, or ‘rules’ about what is good/ not so good to do.

• The learner then needs to organise their perceptions (remember the perceptions lecture) and then rehearse their own version of the observed behaviour.
• Actually ‘doing’ it is important in the process of learning. Hearing about it/ observing is not enough. To retain the ideas – practice is important – both physical (actually writing an essay) as well as thinking about it.

Question 22

What happen during the Reproduction process of Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1971)?

Answer 22

often labelled as motor reproduction:
- The learner has to have the physical capabilities to reproduce the behaviour – this might mean the capability to adapt to carry out the behaviour in a slightly different way if the individual has specific physical needs. - Reproduction is fine-turned through feedback – from the environment. For example, learning not to touch something on top of a cooker – the feedback is through the pain in our hand when touching it. Self-observation plays an important role here. The individual can determine for themselves whether or not the actual behaviour matches their mental representation of it (how they coded it during the retention phase).

Question 23

What happen during Motivation process of Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1971)?

Answer 23

• Reinforcement is not part of the learning process. But reinforcement does impact on the performance of behaviours.
• Motivation is needed for the person to apply their learning and carry out the observed behaviour(s).
• Remember that according to Steers and Porter (1979), motivation is that which energises, directs and sustains behaviour. So – the individual needs to feel its worth bothering to enact the behaviour; they need a purpose; and they need some way that will encourage them to continue.

Question 24

What are some Critiques of Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1971)?

Answer 24

• Bandura’s theory was criticized by biological theorists, who argued it ignores biological states and autonomic nervous system responses. It is a fact that some behaviors and responses are not only learned but partly inherited.
• The Bobo doll experiment was also criticized for being too artificial) and that if an adult was acting violently to a child, other children would not repeat the behavior; or that children were manipulated into repeating the aggressive behavior; or that children were only playing rather then aggressing the doll.
• Bandura’s ideas on violent behavior acquisition through media were also subjected to criticisms. Some authors have found that watching television actually reduces the amount of aggressive behavior since children can relate themselves with characters involved in an violent act and release their violent thoughts) (the Catharsis effect).

Question 25

What was the Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)?

Answer 25

• started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior.
• The unique feature of SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social reinforcement. SCT considers the unique way in which individuals acquire and maintain behavior, while also considering the social environment in which individuals perform the behavior.
• The theory takes into account a person’s past experiences, which factor into whether behavioral action will occur. These past experiences influences reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape whether a person will engage in a specific behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that behavior.

Question 26

What are the 6 Assumption of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)?

Answer 26

The goal of SCT is to explain how people regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over time. The first five constructs were developed as part of the SLT; the construct of self-efficacy was added when the theory evolved into SCT.:
1- Reciprocal Determinism
2- Behavioural Capability
3- Observational Learning
4- Reinforcements
5- Expectations
6- Self-efficacy

Question 27

What is Reciprocal Determinism as a construct of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)?

Answer 27

This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned experiences), environment (external social context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve goals)

Question 28

What is Behavioural Capability as a construct of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)?

Answer 28

This refers to a person’s actual ability to perform a behavior through essential knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform a behavior, a person must know what to do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of their behavior, which also affects the environment in which they live.

Question 29

What is Observational Learning as a construct of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)?

Answer 29

This asserts that people can witness and observe a behavior conducted by others, and then reproduce those actions. This is often exhibited through “modeling” of behaviors. If individuals see successful demonstration of a behavior, they can also complete the behavior successfully.

Question 30

What is Reinforcements as a construct of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)?

Answer 30

This refers to the internal or external responses to a person’s behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior. Reinforcements can be self-initiated or in the environment, and reinforcements can be positive or negative. This is the construct of SCT that most closely ties to the reciprocal relationship between behavior and environment.

Question 31

What is Expectations as a construct of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)?

Answer 31

• This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person’s behavior. Outcome expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People anticipate the consequences of their actions before engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated consequences can influence successful completion of the behavior. Expectations derive largely from previous experience.
• While expectancies also derive from previous experience, expectancies focus on the value that is placed on the outcome and are subjective to the individual.

Question 32

What is Self-Efficacy as a construct of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)?

Answer 32

This refers to the level of a person’s confidence in his or her ability to successfully perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other theories have added this construct at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned Behavior.
- Self-efficacy is influenced by a person’s specific capabilities and other individual factors, as well as by environmental factors (barriers and facilitators).

Question 33

What are Limitations of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)?

Answer 33

• The theory assumes that changes in the environment will automatically lead to changes in the person, when this may not always be true.
  The theory is loosely organized, based solely on the dynamic interplay between person, behavior, and environment. It is unclear the extent to which each of these factors into actual behavior and if one is more influential than another.
• The theory heavily focuses on processes of learning and in doing so disregards biological and hormonal predispositions that may influence behaviors, regardless of past experience and expectations.
• The theory does not focus on emotion or motivation, other than through reference to past experience. There is minimal attention on these factors.
• The theory can be broad-reaching, so can be difficult to operationalize in entirety.

Question 34

What are some Evaluations of Bandura’s work?

Answer 34

• Practically helpful for school teachers and for those working in Learning and Development in organisations
• Recognises humans as self-organising, proactive and self-reflecting
• Many different aspects of Bandura’s work that are not easily unified
• Not all social learning can be easily observed, therefore difficult to measure impact.
• Does not explain development over time

Question 35

How can you compare Behaviourism and Social Cognitive Theory?

Answer 35

Behaviourism:

• Learning as response to stimuli
• Behaviour will remain as long as the stimuli remain, i.e. relies on positive and negative reinforcement

SCT:

• Learning as processed observations (thinking, discovering, understanding)
• Reframing, re-coding of previously learned concepts and principles

Question 36

What are 5 essential difference between Social Learning Theory and Behaviourism?

Answer 36

1 -Social Learning Theory recognises that the learner plays an active role in their learning
2- Social Learning Theory recognises a difference between acquisition and performance of behaviour.
3- Social Learning Theory recognises that behaviours can become fixed
4- Social Learning Theory recognises that reinforcement is an indirect process
5- Social Learning Theory research only involves measurement of observable behaviour

Question 37

How does Social Learning Theory recognises that the learner plays an active role in their learning differ to Behaviourism?

Answer 37

They choose who to attend to, choose which behaviour to remember, choose when and where to reproduce the behaviours and finally choose how to respond to the consequences of their behaviour. In contrast, Behaviourism assumes that the learner simply responds passively to its environment.

Question 38

How does Social Learning Theory recognises a difference between acquisition and performance of behaviour differ to Behaviourism?

Answer 38

It is possible to observe a behaviour, remember and add it to your repertoire, but never produce it. In contrast, Behaviourism argues that performance and learning are the same thing and a behaviour has only been learned if it is used.

Question 39

How does Social Learning Theory recognises that behaviours can become fixed differ to Behaviourism?

Answer 39

Bandura calls these fixed behaviours ‘internalised’ - if they have been imitated and reinforced enough. In contrast, if Behaviourism were correct, our behaviour would constantly change in response to new reinforcement.

Question 40

How does Social Learning Theory recognises that reinforcement is an indirect process differ to Behaviourism?

Answer 40

This is most obvious in vicarious reinforcement where the learner is motivated by reinforcement of their models as if they were being reinforced themselves, but even reinforcement they receive themselves is less direct than in Behaviourism because it is mediated by cognitive factors. What is reinforcing to one person may not be reinforcing to another.

Question 41

How does Social Learning Theory research only involves measurement of observable behaviour differ to Behaviourism?

Answer 41

The majority is done in controlled laboratory experiments, but unlike Behaviourism its participants are almost always humans and its experimental findings are supported by natural observations.