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Biology (Semester 2) > L20, 21 & 22: Organisation of the nervous system > Flashcards

L20, 21 & 22: Organisation of the nervous system Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two components of the central nervous system?

A

Brain and spinal cord

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2
Q

What are the to neuron types that make up the peripheral nervous system?

A

Motor neurons and sensory neurons

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3
Q

Which part of the nervous system controls voluntary movements?

A

Somatic

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4
Q

Which part of the nervous system controls involuntary responses?

A

Autonomic nervous system

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5
Q

Which division of the autonomic nervous system controls “rest and digest” functions?

A

Parasympathetic

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6
Q

Which division of the autonomic nervous system controls “fight or flight” functions?

A

Sympathetic

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7
Q

What areas are innervated by cervical nerves (C1-C8)?

A

Head, neck, upper limb, diaphragm

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8
Q

What areas are innervated by thoracic nerves (T1-T12)?

A

Chest muscles and abdominal muscles

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9
Q

What areas are innervated by lumbar nerves (L1-L5)?

A

Leg muscles

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10
Q

What areas are innervated by sacral nerves (S1-S5)?

A

Bowel, bladder, sexual function

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11
Q

What is cranial nerve (I)? What does it innervate?

A

(I) Olfactory

Sensory: Nose

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12
Q

What is cranial nerve (II)? What does it innervate?

A

(II) Optic

Sensory: Eye

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13
Q

What is cranial nerve (III)? What does it innervate?

A

(III) Occulomotor

Motor: Most eye muscles

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14
Q

What is cranial nerve (IV)? What does it innervate?

A

(IV) Trochlear

Motor: Superior oblique muscle

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15
Q

What is cranial nerve (V)? What does it innervate?

A

(V) Trigeminal
Sensory: Face, teeth, sinuses, etc.
Motor: Muscles of mastication

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16
Q

What is cranial nerve (VI)? What does it innervate?

A

(VI) Abducent

Motor: External muscle

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17
Q

What is cranial nerve (VII)? What does it innervate?

A

(VII) Facial

Motor: Muscles of the face

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18
Q

What is cranial nerve (VIII)? What does it innervate?

A

(VIII) Vestibulocochlear

Sensory: Inner ear

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19
Q

What is cranial nerve (IX)? What does it innervate?

A

(IX) Glossopharyngeal
Motor: Pharyngeal musculature
Sensory: Posterior part of tongue, tonsil, pharynx

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20
Q

What is cranial nerve (X)? What does it innervate?

A

(X) Vagus

Motor: Heart, lungs, bronchi, GI tract

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21
Q

What is cranial nerve (XI)? What does it innervate?

A

(XI) Accessory

Motor: Sterno-cleidomastoid and trapezius muscles

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22
Q

What is cranial nerve (XII)? What does it innervate?

A

(XII) Hypoglossal

Motor: Muscles of the tongue

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23
Q

Fill in the gap:

Somatic (voluntary) efferent nerves carry impulses from CNS to __1__ only.

A

skeletal muscles

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24
Q

True or false:

There is a third division of the peripheral nervous system (in addition to SNS and ANS) called the enteric nervous system.

A

True

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25
Q

Which of the following is/are true of somatic motor neurons?

A. Effector is striated muscle
B. Usually 2 neurons with synapse (ganglion) between
C. Neurotransmitter is always stimulatory
D. Ach and noradrenaline released at synapses
E. No firing at rest
F. Effector at rest is flaccid

A

A. Effector is striated muscle

C. Neurotransmitter is always stimulatory

E. No firing at rest

F. Effector at rest is flaccid

(B is incorrect because somatic motor pathways use a single motor neuron from spinal cord to target organ; D is incorrect because somatic motor neurons only use Ach)

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26
Q

How many neurons are involved in an autonomic motor pathway?

A

Usually 2 neurons with a synapse (ganglion) between

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27
Q

Are neurotransmitters on an autonomic motor pathway stimulatory or inhibitory? Is this the same for somatic?

A

Autonomic: NTs can be stimulatory or inhibitory (NT’s will be either ACh or noradrenaline)

Somatic: NT’s always stimulatory (and always ACh)

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28
Q

Which motor pathway has baseline firing?

A

Autonomic.

While the somatic has no firing at rest, the autonomic has baseline firing which speeds up when stimulated.

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29
Q

If an effector has an intrinsic resting tone, which motor pathway is it on?

A

Autonomic

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30
Q

What are the names of the two motor neurons used in ANS pathways?

A

Preganglionic and postganglionic

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31
Q

Where is the cell body and axon of a preganglionic ANS motor neuron located?

A

Cell body (soma) is in the brain or the spinal cord (lateral horns). The axon exits the CNS as part of a cranial or spinal nerve (small diameter type B fibre)

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32
Q

Where does a preganglionic ANS motor neurone synapse?

A

It synapses with a postganglionic neuron at the autonomic ganglion

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33
Q

Where is the cell body and axon of a postganglionic ANS motor neuron located?

A

Whole neuron lies outside the CNS. Cell body is in the autonomic ganglion, axon leaves as a type C fibre, relaying information to visceral effectors

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34
Q

Where in the spinal cord would you find preganglionic cell bodies?

A

Lateral horns of grey matter in the thoracolumbar division (12 thoracic segments and first 3 lumbar segments)

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35
Q

In the sympathetic division of the ANS, what are the types of ganglia (synapse regions)?

A

Two types: Sympathetic trunk ganglia (innervate above the diaphragm) and prevertebral ganglia (innervate below the diaphragm)

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36
Q

In the sympathetic division, preganglionic nerves can synapse with how many postganglionic neurones?

A

20+ (divergence, many sympathetic responses are whole body)

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37
Q

In the parasympathetic division of the ANS, what are the types of ganglia (synapse regions)?

A

Just 1 type: Terminal ganglia (close to effector)

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38
Q

In the parasympathetic division, preganglionic nerves can synapse with how many postganglionic neurones?

A

Only synapse with 4-5 postganglionic neurons, all in the same visceral organ

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39
Q

In the parasympathetic division, where do preganglionic neurons originate?

A

Cell bodies in nuclei of 4 cranial nerves: III (oculomotor), VII (facial motor), IX (glossopharyngeal), X (valgus).

And S2, S3, S4

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40
Q

Why is the parasympathetic division very targeted and not controlled by hormones?

A

You don’t want to start switching off organ systems in mass!

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41
Q

Which ANS division’s preganglionic neurons originate from T1-L2?

A

Sympathetic

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42
Q

Which ANS division’s preganglionic neurons originate from cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X and spinal cord segments S2-S4?

A

Parasympathetic

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43
Q

Which ANS division is associated with sympathetic root ganglia and prevertebral ganglia?

A

Sympathetic

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44
Q

Which ANS division is associated with terminal ganglia?

A

Parasympathetic

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45
Q

Which ANS division is associated with ganglia that are close to the CNS and distant from visceral effectors?

A

Sympathetic (sympathetic trunk ganglia and prevertebral ganglia)

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46
Q

Which ANS division is associated with ganglia that are typically near or within wall of visceral effectors?

A

Parasympathetic (terminal ganglia)

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47
Q

Which ANS division is associated with short preganglionic neuron axons, and long postganglionic neuron axons?

A

Sympathetic

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48
Q

Which ANS division is associated with long preganglionic axons and short postganglionic axons?

A

Parasympathetic

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49
Q

Which ANS division is associated with the presence of rami communicantes?

A

Sympathetic

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50
Q

Which ANS division is associated with the absence of rami communicantes?

A

Parasympathetic

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51
Q

Which ANS division is associated with the neurotransmitter acetylcholine?

A

Both sympathetic and parasympathetic

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52
Q

Which ANS division is associated with the neurotransmitter noradrenaline?

A

Sympathetic

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53
Q

Describe the locations of the sympathetic trunk ganglia, prevertebral ganglia and terminal ganglia. Which type of autonomic neurones synapse in each type of ganglion?

A

Terminal ganglia (parasymp.) are locate near or within their visceral effector. Sympathetic trunk ganglia (symp.) are above the diaphragm. Prevertebral (symp.)are below the diaphragm.

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54
Q

Which neurotransmitter would be used by a postganglionic neuron that was stimulating cardiac muscle?

A

Noradrenaline

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55
Q

True or false: A single preganglionic neuron can cause sympathetic innervation of the adrenal medulla

A

True

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56
Q

What neurotransmitter is used by postganglionic neurons in the somatic system?

A

Trick question! Somatic system only uses one neuron, so there isn’t a postganglionic neuron. The somatic neuron use ACh with a nicotinic receptor on the effector.

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57
Q

What is the neurotransmitter and receptor used in the ganglia of the autonomic systems?

A

Sympathetic: ACh, nicotinic receptor

Parasympathetic: ACh, nicotinic receptor

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58
Q

In each ANS division, what is the neurotransmitter and receptor used by postganglionic neurons and their effectors?

A

Sympathetic: Ach for sweat gland innervation; NA for all others (adrenergic receptor).

Parasympathetic: ACh only, with a muscarinic receptor

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59
Q

Which receptor is found on all postganglionic cell bodies and the adrenal medulla?

A

Nicotinic

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60
Q

Which receptor is found on all effectors of parasympathetic and sweat glands of sympathetic?

A

Muscarinic

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61
Q

Is noradrenaline (NAd) a neurotransmitter or a hormone?

A

Both.

NAd can be released as a neurotransmitter or as a hormone by chromaffin cells of adrenal medulla

62
Q

Which type of adrenergic receptor is inhibitory?

A. alpha-1
B. alpha-2
C. beta-1
D. beta 2

A

B. alpha-2

63
Q

Which type(s) of adrenergic receptor is/are postsynaptic?

A. alpha-1
B. beta-1
C. beta-2
D. All of the above

A

D. All of the above

64
Q

Which type of adrenergic receptor is associated with renin secretion, hunger, and the heart?

A. alpha-1
B. alpha-2
C. beta-1
D. beta 2

65
Q

What are some of the key functions performed by the parasympathetic division?

A 
SLUDD:
Salivation
Lacrimation
Urination
Digestion
Defecation

3 decreases:
Heart rate
Diameter of airways
Diameter of pupils

66
Q

Which ANS division promotes erection of genitals? Which promotes ejaculation and vaginal contractions?

A

Erection: parasympathetic

Ejaculation/vaginal contractions: sympathetic

67
Q

Children with congential analgesia can’t __?__

68
Q

What treatment sometimes works on congenital analgesia?

A

Naloxone - degrades endorphins to try and restore sensation

69
Q

In what circumstances does naloxone work to help those with congenital analgesia?

A

When the condition is caused by overproduction of endorphins.

If the problem is caused by a mutation affecting the voltage gated-sodium channels, naloxone wont have an effect.

70
Q

Where does perception take place?

A

Cerebral cortex

71
Q

True or false: Sensory receptors can detect multiple types of stimulus

A

False, each sensory receptor responds to only one kind of stimulus (e.g. touch, pain, vision, hearing)

72
Q

What are the special senses?

A

Smell, taste, vision, hearing, balance

73
Q

What does the term “proprioception” refer to?

A

Movement and limb position

74
Q

Free nerve endings detect what type of stimuli?

A

Pain and temperature

75
Q

Encapsulated nerve ending detect what type of stimuli?

A

Touch (e.g. pacinian corpuscles)

76
Q

Sensory pathways have how many neurones?

A

3 - a primary, secondary and tertiary neuron

77
Q

Where do nociception, temperature, and coarse touch cross the midline?

A

In the spinal cord

78
Q

Where do fine touch, proprioception, and vibration cross the midline?

A

In the medulla

79
Q

In sensory pathways, which neuron carries the impulse across the midline (at either the medulla or in the spinal cord)?

A

The secondary sensory neuron

80
Q

True or false: All sensory pathways synapse in the spinal cord

A

False, only the primary and secondary neurons for nociception, temperature and coarse touch synapse in the spinal cord.

Fine touch, proprioception, and vibration synapse in the medulla

81
Q

True or false: All sensory pathways synapse in the thalamus

A

True. All secondary and tertiary sensory neurons synapse in the thalamus.

82
Q

Where does the tertiary sensory neurone pick up the impulse?

A

In the thalamus

83
Q

Where does the tertiary sensory neuron take the impulse?

A

To the primary somatic sensory cortex, where it is processed and a ‘feeling’ is generated

84
Q

Put these in the order that they would receive a sensory impulse:

Dorsal grey column
Thalamic nuclei
Dorsal root ganglia

A
  1. Dorsal root ganglia
  2. Dorsal grey column
  3. Thalamic nuclei
85
Q

Sensory receptors produce __?__ potentials

86
Q

Is an action potential graded or not graded?

A

Not graded.

An action potential is an all-or-nothing impulse

87
Q

What sensory receptor feature is associated with pain, thermal, tickle, itch, and some touch sensations?

A

Free nerve endings

88
Q

What sensory receptor feature is associated with touch, pressure, and vibration?

A

Encapsulated nerve endings

89
Q

What sensory receptor feature is associated with special senses?

A

Separate cells

90
Q

Interoceptors are found:

A. In blood vessels
B. Near the body surface
C. In muscles
D. In the inner ear

A

A. In blood vessels

91
Q

Which class of receptor provides information about muscle length and tension?

A. Exteroreceptors
B. Interoceptors
C. Proprioceptors
D. Osmoreceptors

A

C. Proprioceptors

92
Q

How would you recognise that you are in a cold shower? (what type of sensory neurone would detect the stimulus?) Give an overview of the pathway by which the signal would be sent.

A

Temperature detected by thermoreceptor, sensation transmitted along primary sensory neuron to the dorsal root ganglion, where it is picked up by the secondary neuron, crosses the midline in the spinal cord, and propagated up tot he thalamus where it is picked up by the tertiary neuron and taken to the primary sensory cortex.

93
Q

What does a Merkel disk detect. Is it slow or rapid adapting?

A

Merkel disk, touch, slow adapting

94
Q

What does a Ruffini corpuscle detect? Is it slow or rapid adapting?

A

Ruffini corpuscle, touch, slow adapting

95
Q

What does a Meissner corpuscle detect? Is it slow or rapid adapting?

A

Meissner corpuscle, touch, rapid adapting

96
Q

What does a hair root plexus detect? Is it slow or rapid adapting?

A

Hair root plexus, touch, rapid

97
Q

What does a nociceptor detect?

98
Q

What does a pacinian corpuscle detect?

99
Q

Which receptor(s) is/are found in the dermal papillae?

A

Nociceptors (pain), Merkel discs (slow touch), Meissner corpuscles (rapid touch)

100
Q

Which receptor(s) is/are found mid-dermis?

A

Ruffini corpuscles (slow touch)

101
Q

Where are pacinian corpuscles located?

A

At the base of the dermis

102
Q

True or false: the CNS interprets signals from all 6 of the skin receptors

A

True, this is important in order for you to identify the stimuli and coordinate an appropriate response

103
Q

Conscious proprioception for limbs, trunk, neck and posterior head is conducted along which somatic sensory pathway?

A

Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway

104
Q

Pain, temperature and itch from the limbs, trunk, neck, and posterior head are conducted along which somatic sensory pathway?

A

Spinothalamic

105
Q

Neurons of the spinothalamic tract cross the midline in which region?

A. Spinal cord
B. Medulla oblongata
C. Thalamus
D. Primary somatosensory cortex

A

A. Spinal cord

106
Q

Describe the route of the trigeminothalamic pathway

A
  1. Primary neurons extend into the pons through the trigeminal (V) nerves. Cell bodies are located in the ganglion.
  2. Synapse with 2nd order neurons in the pons and medulla.
  3. 2nd order neurons cross over and ascend trigeminothalamic tract to the thalamus.
  4. 2nd order neurons synapse with 3rd order neurons, which project into cerebral cortex.
107
Q

Which is the only somatic sensory pathway that uses the pons?

A

Trigeminothalamic

108
Q

What sensations use the trigeminothalamic pathway?

A

Somatic sensation from face and teeth

109
Q

What causes Wallenberg syndrome?

110
Q

In Wallenbergs syndrome, infarction in one side of their brain causes a loss of temperature and pain sensation on the __1__lateral side of their body and __2__lateral side of their face.

A
  1. contralateral

2. ipsilateral

111
Q

Syphilis causes debilitating neurological problems by degerating which portions of the spinal column?

A

Posterior portions

112
Q

Syphilis causes a person to lose somatic sensations, and their gait becomes jerky. Why is this?

A

Impulses fail to reach the cerebellum

113
Q

The nose contains 10 million to 100 million receptors for the sense of smell in the olfactory epithelium. What does olfactory epithelium consist of?

A

Olfactory receptors, supporting cells, and basal cells.

114
Q

What are the supporting cells in the olfactory epithelium?

A

Columnar epithelial of mucous membrane lining the nose

115
Q

What are olfactory basal cells?

A

Stem cells that can become olfactory receptors or supporting cells. Olfactory receptors live for just 1 month.

116
Q

How does an olfactory receptor generate an action potential?

A

Odorant molecule binds to protein receptor, ATP converts adenylate cyclase to cAMP, cAMP acts on sodium channel, causing influx that generates potential. Continued influx of Na+ depolarises olfactory cell and triggers action potential.

117
Q

Which of the following are true of olfactory receptors:

A. Have a low threshold
B. Initial adaptation occurs rapidly
C. Slowly adapting after the first second
D. All of the above

A

D. All of the above

118
Q

What term describes the inability to detect odours?

119
Q

What term describes a decreased ability to detect odours?

120
Q

What term describes a distorted identification of smell?

121
Q

What term describes an altered perception of smell in the presence of an odour (usually unpleasant)?

122
Q

What term describes the perception of smell without an odour present?

A

Phantosmia

123
Q

What term describes the inability to classify or contrast odours, although able to detect odours?

124
Q

What is the function of spinal white matter?

A

Impulse propagation (contains sensory and motor tracts).

White matter tracts are highways for nerve impulse propagation. Sensory inputs travel along these to the brain; motor inputs travel along these to the effectors

125
Q

What is the function of spinal grey matter?

A

Integrates incoming and outgoing information.

Integrates excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

126
Q

How can you tell whether a spinal tract is motor or sensory?

A

The name tells you the direction the impulse is travelling. Sensory impulses travel towards the CNS, motor impulses travel away from the CNS.

127
Q

Sensory neurons always go through the __?__ ganglion

128
Q

Give the general components of a reflex arc

A
  1. Sensory receptor
  2. Sensory neuron
  3. Integrating centre (CNS)
  4. Motor neuron
  5. Effector
129
Q

What does the stretch reflex control?

A

Muscle length

130
Q

True or false: in the stretch reflex, the effector is the same muscle that stimulated the reflex.

A

True.

Meanwhile, that muscle’s antagonist is inhibited.

131
Q

Fill in the gaps:

The stretch reflex is a __1__ reflex arc that uses __2__ junctions. __3__ triggers action potential. It is an __4__ reflex, which means the sensory nerve impulse enters the spinal cord on the __5__ side as the motor neurons that leave it.

A
  1. monoynaptic
  2. neuromuscular
  3. Acetylcholine
  4. ipsilateral
  5. same
132
Q

At the same time as the stretch reflex, a __?__ reflex arc inhibits the antagonistic muscles.

A

polysynaptic

133
Q

When a reflex stimulates one muscle and inhibits the antagonistic muscles, it is called __?__ innervation.

A

reciprocal

This prevents conflict by opposing muscles

134
Q

What does the tendon reflex control?

A

Muscle tension, allows relaxation to prevent tendon damage

135
Q

Which is more sensitive, stretch or tendon reflex?

A

Stretch

Although it is less sensitive, the tendon reflex can override the stretch reflex

136
Q

IS the tendon reflex ipsilateral or contralateral?

A

Ipsilateral

137
Q

In the tendon reflex, where are the sensory receptors located?

A

Tendon organs

138
Q

Regarding tendon reflex:

As tension increases, frequency of __?__ impulses increases, relaxing the muscle.

A

inhibitory

139
Q

Flexor (or withdrawal) reflex is NOT:

A. Contralateral
B. Polysynaptic
C. Intersegmental
D. Linked with crossed extensor reflex

A

A. Contralateral

Flexor reflex is ipsilateral

140
Q

What is the stimulus and response for the flexor reflex?

A

Stimulus = pain

Effect: Flexor muscles contract to withdraw from source of pain

141
Q

What other reflex is activated along with the flexor reflex?

A

Crossed extensor reflex

142
Q

What connects the flexor reflex to the crossed extensor reflex?

A

Interneurons that cross the midline.

143
Q

Is the crossed extensor reflex ipsi- or contra- lateral?

A

Contralateral

144
Q

What might be indicated by the absence of a patellar reflex?

A

(Use patellar reflex test to check stretch reflex)

No response indicates damage to sensory or motor neurons or to the integration centres in 2nd, 3rd, or 4th lumbar segments. Often absent in chronic diabetes.

145
Q

What can the Achilles reflex test indicate?

A

Tertiary neurosyphilis, diabetes, alcoholism, subarachnoid haemorrhage

146
Q

Why is it hard to test most autonomic reflexes?

A

It is difficult to stimulate visceral effectors

147
Q

Which autonomic reflex can be easily tested?

A

Pupillary light reflex

148
Q

Paralysis from the waist down suggests damage to which spinal section?

149
Q

Paralysis from the mid-chest down suggests damage to which spinal section?

150
Q

Paralysis from the neck down suggests damage to which spinal section?

Biology (Semester 2) (11 decks)

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