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CYTOGENETICS > (L2) DNA Structure > Flashcards

(L2) DNA Structure Flashcards

1
Q

DNA and RNA are _________ (they are made up

of repeating units of nucleotides)

A

polynucleotides

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2
Q

The sugar component of the genetic material is a fivecarbon molecule, known as _________

A

pentose

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3
Q

Sugar name for DNA:

A

Deoxyribose

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4
Q

Sugar name for RNA:

A

ribose

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5
Q
  • monomer units or building blocks of nucleic acids.
  • It is a compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a
    phosphate group.
A

Nucleotides

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6
Q

_______ form the basic structural unit of
nucleic acids such as deoxyribonucleic acid or
DNA and the ribonucleic acid/RNA

A

Nucleotides

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7
Q

The universal currency of energy, namely __, is a

nucleotide derivative.

A

ATP

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8
Q

___________ serve as donors of phosphoryl groups (e.g. ATP or GTP), of sugars (e.g. UDP- or GDP sugars), or of lipids (e.g. CDP-acyglycerol)

A

Nucleotide

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9
Q

For the coding regions in the DNA, they are for

_________

A

genes such as proteins.

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10
Q

For non-coding regions, they are either for _______.

A

DNA junk or to help regulate protein synthesis

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11
Q

________ are ring structures or aromatics that contain nitrogen and carbon in their rings. Thus, referred to as ________.

A

Nitrogenous Bases; heterocyclic

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12
Q

The nitrogen bases can be either:

A

Purines: Adenine, Guanine
Pyramidines: Uracil, Thymine, Cytosine

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13
Q

Purines and Pyrimidines are ______ whose
rings contain both carbon and other elements. (hetero
atoms)

A

cyclic compounds

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14
Q

Chemical Formula for Purines:

A

C5 H4 N4

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15
Q

Chemical Formula for Pyramidines:

A

C4 H4 N2

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16
Q

A Nitrogen base that has a double ring structure – (the

_____ ring and five membered imidazole ring)

A

Purine

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17
Q

A Nitrogen base that has a Single Ring Structure

A

Pyramidine

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18
Q

The DNA molecule has A, G, C, and T, while RNA ____________.

A

also has A, G, and C but T was replaced with U.

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19
Q

_________ are nitrogen bases that hold DNA strands together through hydrogen bonds.

A

Purines & Pyrimidines

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20
Q 
A \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ contains a pyrimidine ring fused with an 
imidazole ring (a five-member ring with two nonadjacent nitrogen atoms).
A

purine

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21
Q

Purine is a two-ringed structure that has nine atoms forming the ring:

A

5 carbon atoms and 4 nitrogen atoms.

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22
Q

Different purines are distinguished by the _____________

A

atoms of functional groups attach to the rings

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23
Q

Purines serve much the same function as pyrimidines in

organisms:

A
  1. cell signaling
  2. energy storage
  3. enzyme regulation.
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24
Q

The molecules in Purines are used to make __________. Purines are abundant in meat, fish, beans, peas, and grains.

A

starch and proteins

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25
Q

A pyrimidine is an organic ring consisting of six atoms:

A

4 carbon atoms and 2 nitrogen atoms

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26
Q

Pyrimidines function in DNA & RNA:

A
  1. Cell signaling
  2. Energy storage
  3. Enzyme regulation
  4. Make protein & starch
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27
Q

Derive the nucleotide:

A

Nitrogenous base + Sugar + Phosphate = Nucleotide

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28
Q

_____ are heterocyclic, aromatic organic compounds
consisting of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole
ring. (2 rings)

A

Purines

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29
Q

______ are heterocyclic, aromatic organic
compounds similar to purine containing 2 nitrogen
atoms at positions 1 & 3 of the membered ring.

A

Pyrimidines

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30
Q

__________ contains the information that determines inherited characteristics.

A

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

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31
Q

It has the code for making proteins.

A

DNA

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32
Q

It has the code for making proteins.

A

DNA

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33
Q

DNA is found in the ________ of the eukaryotic cells and in the _____ of prokaryotes if we take a closer look at
the chromatin inside the nucleus.

A

nucleus; cytosol

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34
Q

All cells require some form of instructions to be able to function properly. They need guidelines, rules, codes for making materials in the cell – and that code is ___.

A

DNA

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35
Q

A nitrogen base covalently binds with a sugar to form a

nucleoside. The bond formed is _______.

A

N-glycosidic bond

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36
Q

One of the [-PO4] groups in DNA is bound to carbon number 5 of one sugar molecule and the other to carbon number 3 of the adjacent sugar molecule. This is known as the _______.

A

phosphodiester linkages or bridges

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37
Q

The DNA has repeating subunits called _________, specifically.

A

monomers or nucleotides

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38
Q

A purine is always in pair with a pyrimidine and the slanted shape of DNA molecule causes it to form a __________

A

spiral or a helix

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39
Q

In the structure of DNA, along the sides of the molecule, it is a backbone made of alternating _________molecules while on the inside are the ________

A

sugar and phosphate ; nitrogen bases.

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40
Q

Adenine and Thymine form ___ hydrogen bonds together while Cytosine and Guanine form ___ hydrogen bonds together.

A

2 ; 3 (AT2 bonds / CG3 bonds)

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40
Q

Adenine and Thymine form ___ hydrogen bonds together while

Cytosine and Guanine form ___ hydrogen bonds together.

A

2 ; 3 (AT2 bonds / CG3 bonds)

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41
Q

letters A & T both use _____ lines; having 2 bonds

C & G uses _____ lines; having 3 bonds

A

straight; curved

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42
Q

pentagon shapes on the sides (sugar)

A

Deoxyribose

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43
Q

circles in between the deoxyribose (backbone shape)

A

Phosphate

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44
Q

How many hydrogen bonds for A & T?

A

2; straight line

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45
Q

How many hydrogen bonds for G & C?

A

3; curved line

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46
Q

have 2 rings (A & G)

A

Purines

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47
Q

have 1 ring (C & T)

A

Pyramidines

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48
Q

DNA is found in the ________

A

nucleus

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49
Q

RNA is found in the ________

A

nucleus and cytoplasm

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50
Q

Nitogen bases for DNA:

A

A-T-G-C

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51
Q

Nitogen bases for RNA:

A

A-U-G-C

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52
Q

Bases for DNA:

A

DNA is a long polymer with a deoxyribose & phosphate backbone

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53
Q

Bases for RNA:

A

RNA is a polymer with a ribose & phosphate backbone

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54
Q

Job/ Roles of DNA:

A

storage and transmission of genetic info.

55
Q

Job/ Roles of RNA:

A

Transfer the genetic code needed for the creation of proteins from the nucleus to the ribosome.

This process prevents the DNA from having to leave the nucleus.

56
Q

Single-stranded chain of alternating phosphate & ribose units with the bases A/G/C/U bonded to the ribose

A

RNA

57
Q

A nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development & functioning of all known living organisms

A

DNA

58
Q

Predominant structure: A single-stranded molecule in most of its biological roles

A

RNA

59
Q

Predominant Structure: Typically, a double-stranded molecule with a long chain of nucleotides

A

DNA

60
Q

_______ molecules are involved in protein synthesis and in the transmission of genetic information.

A

RNA

61
Q

Stability of DNA:

A

less reactive; stable in alkaline solution

62
Q

Stability of RNA:

A

more reactive; not stable in alkaline solutions

63
Q

The helix geometry of DNA is of _______

A

B-form

64
Q

The helix geometry of RNA is of ______

A

A-form

65
Q

_______ strands are continually made, broken down, and reused.

A

RNA

66
Q

_____ is completely protected by the body.

A

DNA

67
Q

____ can be damaged by exposure to ultra-violet rays

A

DNA

68
Q

___ more resistant to damage by ultra-violet rays

A

RNA

69
Q

Who founded in 1940 that DNA differ in different species. Each specie has different ratio of bases?

A

Erwin Chargaff

70
Q

________ of molar equivalence between the purines and pyrimidines in DNA structure. DNA has equal number of Adenine and Thymine residues and an equal number of Guanine & Cytosine residues.

A

Chargaff’s rule

71
Q

The double helical structure of DNA derives its strength from ________

A

Chargaff’s rule

72
Q

Chargaff, in 1950, observed using current language that in any doublestranded DNA segment, the Adenine and Thymine frequencies are equal, and so are the frequencies of Cytosine and Guanine (Chargaff 1950).

A

Chargaff’s first parity rule

73
Q

Chargaff also perceived that the parity rule approximately holds in the single-stranded DNA segment. Although it is not well understood, it has been confirmed in several organisms (Mitchell & Bride, 2006)

A

Chargaff’s second parity rule.

74
Q

Who defended the double helix structure of DNA?

A

Watson & Crick (DNA double-helix structure

model)

75
Q

Who defended the double helix structure of DNA?

A

Watson & Crick (DNA double-helix structure

model)

76
Q

describes the flow of genetic information in all of life (plants, animals, humans)

A

CENTRAL DOGMA OF BIOLOGY

77
Q

CENTRAL DOGMA OF BIOLOGY Process by which the instructions in DNA are converted into a functional product. It was first proposed in 1958
by ________, discoverer of the ______.

A

Francis Crick; structure of DNA

78
Q

The __________ explains the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to make a functional product called the protein.

A

central dogma of molecular biology

79
Q

The _______

is the basic unit of all living tissue.

A

cell

80
Q

Each chromosome contains a long strand of DNA, tightly packaged around proteins called _________.

A

histones

81
Q

Summary for Central Dogma:

A

Cell - Nucleus - Genome - Split between 23 pairs of chromosomes - DNA packaged histones - Genes contain protein-making instructions

82
Q

RNA polymerase attaches to DNA and splits it → Matches mRNA at the free bases → Sections in the mRNA are added and removed.

A

Transcription

83
Q

Ribosomes bind to mRNA in the cytoplasm → tRNA carries pre-made/pre-attached amino acids and matches to the corresponding mRNA section → the chain folds into a complex 3D shape to form a protein

A

Translation

84
Q
  • Genetic information travels from the DNA to the RNA (and
    all species contain DNA that contains genetic information).
  • DNA is capable of replication using DNA polymerase.
  • DNA contains genetic info that is transferred to RNA
    through transcription
A

Replication

85
Q
  • RNA polymerases use DNA as template to make RNA.
A

Transcription

86
Q

contains all DNA information.

A

(messenger) mRNA:

87
Q

complexes with proteins that make up the cellular organelle called the ribosome.

A

(ribosomal) rRNA:

88
Q

carries amino acids which works with rRNA to enable the process of translation.

A

(transfer) tRNA:

89
Q
  • mRNA is read as a template by the rRNA and proteins in
    ribosome which also uses tRNA to make protein out of
    amino acids. x proteins go on to perform cellular functions:
    replicating, phosphorylating, signaling aspect of the cell.
A

Translation

90
Q

Aside from the three general transfers, there are what we call special transfers or extensions of the central dogma:

A
  1. Retroviruses

2. RNA Replicase

91
Q

Are viruses with RNA as the genetic material. Contain a unique enzyme Reverse Transcriptase.

A

Retrovirus

92
Q

This enzyme can catalyze the enzymatic synthesis of a DNA complimentary to the viral RNA

A

Retrovirus

93
Q

Example for Retrovirus or Reverse Transcriptase:

A

Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV-AIDS)

94
Q

RNA-containing viruses when present in their host cell (E. coli) bring about the synthesis of a set of enzymes

Because of the presence of these enzymes, the duplication of the virus RNA is made possible.

A

RNA Replicase

95
Q

Four basic requirements for a biomolecule to quality as a genetic material:

A
  1. Ability to store large amounts of genetic information.
  2. Ability to transfer the information to daughter cells.
  3. Physical and chemical stability
  4. Mutability
96
Q

The DNA is a very stable biomolecule mainly due to the three factors inherent in its structure:

A
  1. Sugar-phophate backbone
  2. Base-stacking
  3. H-bonding
97
Q

extremely stable under all conditions like extreme temperature and pH

A

Sugar-phosphate backbone

98
Q

which prefers to the tendency of the hydrophobic N-bases to pile on top of the other, also contributes to stability of the gene.

A

Base-stacking

99
Q

are weak themselves, they can add tremendous stability when found between millions
between base pairs of a whole DNA structure.

A

H-bonds

100
Q

Who termed Genetic code?

A

George Gamow

101
Q

The collection of codons is called ________

A

genetic code

102
Q

For 20 amino acids there should be ________

A

20 codons

103
Q

__________ is a dictionary that corresponds with sequence of nucleotides and sequence of amino acids.

A

Genetic code

104
Q

______ is a set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins by living cells.

A

Genetic code

105
Q

Each codon should have 3 nucleotides to impart specificity to each of the amino acid for a specific codon.
o 1 nucleotide – __ combinations
o 2 nucleotide – __ combinations
o 3 nucleotide – __ combinations (most suited for 20
amino acids)

A

4; 16; 64

106
Q

The _________ is a particular sequence of nucleotide that tells which amino acid are to be linked together to form a protein.

A

genetic code

107
Q

The genetic code consists of ___ Triplets of Nucleotides that code for ___ amino acids. Each of these triplets are known as codons.

A

64; 20

108
Q

As there are 64 codons and only 24 amino acids, a single amino acid can be coded by more than one codon. This property of genetic code is known as ___________

A

degeneracy

109
Q

For example: Proline (CCU, CCC, CCA, CCG)

A

Degeneracy

110
Q

However, a single codon will all be scored for a single amino acid. This property of genetic code is called __________ nature. One codon cannot specify more than one amino acid.

A

Non-ambiguity/Non-ambiguous nature

111
Q

for example, CCU will always encode Proline and AUG always codes for Methionine.

A

Non-ambiguity/Non ambiguous nature

112
Q

The genetic code is ______ which means, after reading one triplet the reading frame shift over the other three nucleotides. One base cannot participate in the formation of more than one codon.

A

Non overlapping

113
Q

The genetic code is of __________. It is coma-less which means that there is no extra nucleotide between the codons. The gene is transcribed and translated continuously from a fixed starting point to the fixed stop point.

A

Continuous Translation

114
Q

The genetic code has a start and stop codon. ____ is usually a start codon that codes for Methionine

A

AUG; Methionine

115
Q

the stop codons are _________.

A

UAA, UAG, UGA.

116
Q

A stop codon is also known as _____ as they do not code for any amino acid

A

nonsense codon

117
Q

The genetic code is nearly _______ which means it is the same in human, bacteria, plants, amphibians, and viruses. However, there are some exceptions in mitochondrial genome,

Exception of a few minor variations in mitochondria,
some bacteria, and some single-celled eukaryotes.

A

universal

118
Q

The genetic code is also _____ in a way that AUG is a codon for methionine in the mitochondria. The same code which is AUG codes for Isoleucine in the
cytoplasm.

A

universal

119
Q

Lastly, the code has a definite direction for reading of messages which is referred to as ______. Reading of messages from left to right and right to left will specify for different amino acid.

A

Polarity

120
Q

For example, UUG Leucine | GUU Valine

A

Polarity

121
Q

Types of Codons:

A

Sense Codon and Signal Codons

122
Q

code for amino acids

A

Sense Codons

123
Q

code for signal during protein synthesis.

A

Signal Codons

124
Q

(AUG is the initiation codon.) Its codes for
the first amino acids in all protein. At the starting point, it codes for Methionine in eukaryotes and Formyl Methionine in prokaryotes.

A

Start Codons

125
Q

(UAA, UAG, UGA are the termination codons.) Often referred to as amber, ochre, and opal
codon

A

Stop Codons

126
Q

The base sequence of tRNA which pairs with

codon of mRNA during translation is called ______

A

Anticodon

127
Q
  • could be present in both DNA & RNA
  • written in 5 to 3 direction
  • are sequentially arranged in nucleic acid strand
  • defines which anticodon should come next with an amino acid to create the protein strand
A

Codon

128
Q
  • always present in RNA & never in DNA
  • usually written in 3 to 5 direction.
  • discretely present in cells with amino acids attached or not
  • helps in bringing a particular amino acid at its proper position during translation
  • of some tRNA molecules have to pair with more than one codon.
A

Anticodon

129
Q

Mutations can be well explained using the ________

A

genetic code.

130
Q

Point Mutations

A
  1. Silent Mutations
  2. Missense Mutations
  3. Nonsense Mutations
  4. Frame Shift Mutations
131
Q
  • Mutations in DNA that do not have an observable
    effect on the organism’s phenotype.
  • Single nucleotide change (GAA-Glutamate to GAGGlutamate), same amino acid is incorporated.
    Mutation goes unnoticed
A

Silent Mutations

132
Q
  • is a point mutation in which a single nucleotide change result in a codon that codes for a different amino acid.
  • The single nucleotide change (CAT-Histidine to CCTProline) different amino acid incorporated. Loss of functional capacity of protein.
A

Missense Mutations

133
Q
  • A single nucleotide change (CAG-Glutamine to
    TAG-stop), a stop codon is generated (in mRNA
    represented by UAG),
  • The premature termination of chain may be
    incompatible with life.
  • This type of mutation results in a shortened
    protein that may function improperly or not at all
A

Nonsense Mutations

134
Q

genetic manipulation of microorganisms for the production of antibiotics,
hormones, etc.)

A

Biotechnology

135
Q

tests are used in detection of a crime

A

Forensics

136
Q

→ ____ is the blueprint for life

→ ____ isolation is one of the most basic and essential
techniques in the study of ____.

→ The extraction of ____ from cells and its purification are
of primary importance to the field of biotechnology
and forensics

A

DNA

CYTOGENETICS (6 decks)

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