L15 - The Development of Gender Differences

Question 1

What is Sex?

Answer 1

• Biological and physical status as male/female
• Genetic differences: XX/XY
• Physiological differences
• Hormonal differences before/after birth

Question 2

What is Gender?

Answer 2

Psychological, social, cultural status as males and females

Question 3

What is Cis-Gender?

Answer 3

Where biological sex and gender identity align

Question 4

What is the gender similarities hypothesis?

Answer 4

• Similarities far outweigh the differences
• The effect sizes of differences are quite small

Question 5

What is a summary of average gender averages?

Answer 5

• Some of the gender differences develop over time
• Some can be due to stereotypes

Question 6

What are biological theories of gender?

Answer 6

• Physical differences between males and females
• Genes, hormones and brain functioning: genetic differences determine biological sex - but no human studies, some mice aggression studies
• Evidence of small brain differences: imaging studies show the white matter volume increases throughout childhood greater in males
• No links between brain structure and gender-typed behaviour

Question 7

What are hormonal differences and behaviour?

Answer 7

• Prenatal presence of androgens inc. testosterone relevant to sex development
• Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: genetic condition of high levels of androgens in females
• Females with CAH = likely to engage in male-stereotyped activities - no link to parental treatment
• Androgen Insensitivity syndrome: genetic condition, androgen does not trigger usual male physical development
• Males with AIS have greater engagement with female stereotyped activities and identifying as a female

Question 8

What is Kohlberg’s Cognitive Theory of Gender-Role Development?

Answer 8

• Gender identity: 30mo = children can label themselves/others as boys/girls
• Gender stability: by 3-4 years = know gender is permanent but link gender to superficial appearance
• Gender constancy: by 6 years = gender is permanent across situations
• Gender understanding influences behaviour = more pronounced through gender development stages

Question 9

What is the Gender Schema Theory?

Answer 9

• Children develop gender schemas e.g what boys do
• Based off own experiences and adult/peer influences
• Develop own-gender schema - knowledge of what is consistent with their own gender
• Development of schemas start as soon as they have a basic understanding of schema

Question 10

What studies show gender schema reinforcement?

Answer 10

• At 2 years - ability to label photos as boys/girls associated with increased picking of gender stereotyped objects
• 4-9yo play in new env. Boxes labelled girls/boys and then labels swapped. Children played significantly more with the toys in their gender-matched box

Question 11

What are gender schemas foster biased processing?

Answer 11

• Girls remember more what women say than what men say and vice versa for boys
• When gender-inconsistent information was presented, the children remember it as gender-consistent

Question 12

What is social cognitive theory? (3 processes to learn about gender)

Answer 12

• Personal factors, env factors and behaviour patterns combining
• Learning about gender via 3 processing?
  1) Tuition - direct teaching about gender roles e.g dad playing football with son
  2) Evocative processes - learning from reactions to previous behaviour e.g girl wears dress and is praised
  3) Observational learning - including personal experience and media
• Process of self-socialisation - monitoring behaviour and match to self-concept - reinforcing cognitions and behaviour

Question 13

What are integrative theories?

Answer 13

• Bringing together previous theories
• Gender self-socialisation model: emphasises role of self-socialisation

Question 14

What is the Gender Self-socialisation Model?

Answer 14

• Self, group, attributes e.g group identity, self-concept and stereotyped beliefs
  1) Stereotype emulation: greater identity = greater adherence e.g really identify with being a girl = more engagement in behaviours related to being a girl
  2) Stereotype construction: forming stereotypes based on personal-social attributes e.g I like this = must mean girls like doing this
  3) Identity construction: where personal-social attributes align with stereotypes = greater identity
• Gender typicality will foster both adoption of stereotypes and projection of one’s own attributes onto same-same sex others
• Possibly supports process for those not identifying with gender assigned at birth

Question 15

What is a study for early preference for gender-stereotyped toys

Answer 15

• Study of 12, 18 and 23 mo. boys and girls
• Looking at visual preferences for photos of vehicles and dolls
• No differences at age 12 mo. BUT clear preferences by 18mo.

Question 16

What are the implications of the early preference study?

Answer 16

• Gender-stereotyped toy preference begins at 18 mo-24 mo. Same sex peer preference at 2 years
• Gender-typed play rigidity increases between 3&4 years and then continues in early school years
• More flexibility by age 6-7 years = links to gender constancy = BUT stereotyped behaviour does continue

Question 17

What is the study of playing with peers?

Answer 17

At age 4, children are more likely to play with same gender than mixed groups than the opposite gender, at age 6 it increases and as you get older it follows a similar pattern

Question 18

What are the gender differences in cognitive ability and academic achievement?

Answer 18

• No gender differences in cognitive functioning and intelligence
• Some variability on specific skills e.g girls have higher achievement in verbal skills and reading and boys have greater visual-spatial processing
• Evidence to suggest differences in types of assessment e.g girls perform better at long-answer questions

Question 19

Where are gender differences in achievement being seen?

Answer 19

• Worldwide, 14% boys vs 9% girls not achieve baseline proficiency in reading, maths and science
• Males have greater school dropout and failure to sit exams
• Males perform less well in GCSEs and A-Levels
• Gender gap grater for humanities than STEM subjects
• Differences in choice of subjects for exams too

Question 20

What factors influence these differences?

Answer 20

• Seen gender-stereotyped behaviour at different ages
• Starting early and continuing in many contexts
• Different theoretical approaches highlight the development of cognitive schemas and desire ro match these to behaviour

Question 21

What are cultural influences on gender stereotypes?

Answer 21

• Males and females asked to play with a 3 mo. baby - told male/female or no gender info - presented with 3 possible toys e.g football, doll and teething ring
• Gender specific toy more likely to be presented when gender given
• Effect especially strong for females

Question 22

What was the study on bedrooms and toys?

Answer 22

1) Toys of 152 children aged 5 studied, and found types of toys were gender stereotyped
2) Gender differences in colour of room, bedding, clothing and toys at 5,13&25 mo.
3) Looked at disney store website and found toys were split in boys/girls/neutral toys and the types of toys. Colours of toys were also different

Question 23

What are parental influences in gender differences?

Answer 23

• Mothers talk more to their baby girls than baby boys = girls learn language faster
• Parents reinforce male behaviours in boys
• Parents reinforce same-gender toy play. Not often negatively reinforce opposite-gender toy play. If there is negative reinforcement = used more for boys

Question 24

What are other influences on gender stereotypes - teachers?

Answer 24

• Expectations being biased by student gender e.g boys are better at maths
• Study of 600 German school children and found teacher’s perception of maths ability influenced the child’s and parent’s perception as well as child’s achievement
• Gender-stereotyped expectations leading to self-fulfilling prophecies

Question 25

What are peer influences on gender stereotypes? (Exp)

Answer 25

• Gender-segregated peer groups - starts in toddlerhood and continues throughout childhood
• Gender-stereotyped play associated with time spent with same-sex peers
• 61 children aged 3-6years and observational assessments during play across 6 months
• Rated who child was playing with and what type of play
• Same-sex peers associated with more gender-stereotyped play - social dosage effect
• Larger effects for boys than girls