KNPE 261 weeks 1-4 Flashcards
1
Q
factors affecting movement
A
person, environment and task
2
Q
principles of motor control and learning are applied to:
A
-coaching/teaching
-rehab
-surgical skills
-ergonomics
-robotics
3
Q
george berkley astated in the New Theory of Vision:
A
a being with perfect sight but no touch could not develop the ability to percieve 3 dimensions
4
Q
Woodworth systematic classification of movement
A
movement has 2 phases: ballistic and online control
5
Q
Thorndike Law of Effect
A
responses rewarded are repeated and responses not rewarded are not repeated
6
Q
Hull 1943
A
fatigue as a result of practive is the mechanism underlying learning…. NOT TRUE
7
Q
Motor learning definition
A
a set of processes associated with practice or experience that leads to a relatively permanent change in the capacity for movement
8
Q
Motor control definition
A
an area of study dealing with the understanding of the neural, physical and behavioural aspects of movement
9
Q
which of the following experimental approaches would most likely conform to thorndike’s view of motor learning
a)pavlovs classical conditioning
b) startle-response
c) zimbardos prison experiments
d) freuds case studies
e) none
A
e) none of the above
**it would be operant conditioning
10
Q
what performance measures are most predictive of player success?
A
consistency or variability
11
Q
Define a motor skill
A
task with specific goal, performed voluntarily, requiring body and/or limb movement, needs to be learned
12
Q
are all movements motor skills
A
no. ex. reflexes
13
Q
components of a motor skill
A
- Perceiving relevant environmental features (defining goal positions and outcomes)
- Deciding what to do and the timing of the action (planning and programming how to achieve goal)
- Producing muscular activity required to generate the movement goal (sending and adjusting commands)
14
Q
why is it important to categorize motor skills
A
- To be able to understand research literature (communicate findings and learn new tecniques)
- Motor behaviours are complex (certain rules/models may only apply to a subset of tasks)
**results dont often match literature
15
Q
Classification of skills
A
discrete vs continuous
open vs closed
fine vs gross
**these are a continuum
16
Q
discrete skill
A
clear start and end
17
Q
example discrete skill
A
shooting a BB or kicking a ball
18
Q
serial movement
A
set of discrete movements strung together
19
Q
example of serial movement
A
gymnastics routine
20
Q
continuous movement
A
no clear start and end, repetitive
21
Q
example continuous movement
A
running, swimming, steering car
22
Q
opens skills vs closed skills
A
open skills are unpredictable whereas closed skills are predictable
23
Q
example open skill
A
catching a butterfly or wrestling
24
Q
example closed skill
A
bowling, brushing teeth, writing
25
Open skills
-unpredictable
-adaptability
26
Closed skills
-precise and consistent via practice planning and programming movements
27
Fine motor skills
involve small muscle groups
28
gross motor skills
involve large muscle groups
29
considerations when measuring motor performance
objectivity, reliability
& validity
30
why is measuring motor performance important
critical for evaluations and help us gauge the amount of learning
31
objectivity
the likelihood that 2 individuals/tools would be able to come up with the same measure of performance
32
reliability
interaction between the tools used to measure
33
validity
how do measurements translate from a closed/controlled setting to an open/real world setting
34
on a single trial how could we calculate how far an arrow is from a target
constant error
35
Mean Constant error
average error in the response
36
Constant error
-the amount and direction of bias away from the target
-useful for providing feedback about tendency or bias
37
limitations of constant error
errors can cancel out, if they are in opposite directions as the + or - indicated direction of bias
* to overcome this, take more trials
38
Assesing consistency of a shot
variable error (does not take into account WHERE the target is)
39
Variable error
- the difference between performance score and the persons own mean
-reflects consistency (variability)
-not concerned with target position
40
Constant error is a measure of
accuracy
41
variable error is a measure of
precision/ consistency
42
what to look for in a player
low variable error, this means they are consistent and precise may just have to shift aim
43
Overall error
-measure of root mean square error (RMSE)
-sum of squared differences between the achieved position and the goal position
-similar to VE but with reference to target position
44
skills can be classified depending on their
-progression from start to end (discrete vs continuous)
-predictability of environment (open vs closed)
-size of musculature used (fine vs gross)
45
motor performance can be assessed by computing
1. CE - measuring bias
2. VE - measuring consistency
3. TE - measuring consistency around a target
46
when the constant error is close to zero, what is the relationship between total variability and variable error?
total variability and variable error will be similar or equal (if CE=0)
47
Absolute Error
-absolute deviation between the performers movements and the target
(no direction, a miss of 3 units even if they are in opposite directions)
48
Absolute constant error
-just removes the sign of constant error
49
when would absolute constant error be useful
eliminates bias when summarizing the whole group
50
measuring performance in a continuous task
-compute the difference between performed trajectory and target trajectory
-RMSE (measuring deviation over a sampling variable, usually time)
51
Muybridge (1887, 1979)
examined different phases of movements in humans and horses
52
motor control and learning is often concerned with
errors and performance (examining endpoint variables and strageties)
53
54
movements can be characterized by looking at
kinematics (concerend with motion)
55
Kinematic markers that are used to describe movements
-position information (where limb is in space)
-velocity information (rate of change of position)
-Acceleration (rate of change of velocity)
56
Temporal and temporal-kinematic variables used to describe movement
reaction time, movement time, time to/after kinematic markers
57
why are kinematics useful
-give researcher/coach detailedinformation about current performance and improvements in actions
-can provide detailed, understandable feedback
58
kinematisc in the brain
neuronal recording studies have found that neuronal firing patterns in motor related areas in the brain predict the kinematics of movements (posterior pariteal cortex and motor cortex)
59
Temporal Characteristics
Reaction time
-RT was used for as a proxy for cognitive function
60
what is Reaction Time
a measure of the time from arrival of a stimulus to the beginning of the response (stimulus is unanticipated)
61
How can we control for anticipation
vary the time that the stimulus is presented to make it more unpredictable OR "go" and "no go" tasks
62
2 components of reaction time
pre motor & motor
63
pre-motor RT
no muscle activity but stimulus has been presented
64
motor RT
muscle activity but no overt movement - start producing force
65
movement time
time interval from initiation of the response to the completion of the movement
66
response time
RT + MT
67
different processes studied using RT and MT
-processes to initiate a movement
-processes to complete a movement
-different processes may underlie correcting a movement as well
68
movement measuring devices
-KINARM
-marked motion capture
-markerless capture
69
correlations
measure both direction and strength of a relationship
70
Correlation coefficent (R)
number indicates: relationship fro -1 to +1
sign indicates: direction
71
regression
allows to predict one variable from another
72
indirect way of measuring capability in a motor task
dual cognitive task because attention is a limited source, the less attention a task takes, the more the performer has mastered it
73
Dual task training
little evidence that this causes underlying changes
74
RMSE
difference between ideal and optimal trajectories (movement paths)
75
Is there any real scientific basis for these new cognitive-motor performance sports training devices?
new higher quality research suggests there could be.... but not necessarily for sport performance
76
When would you use absolute error?
accuracy without bias
77
when would you use constant error?
accuracy when there is conflicting bias (sample w subset of ppl w opposite magnitudes)
78
when would you use RMSE
continuous movements, sampling over a variable
79
what are the two components of rxn time
premotor and motor
80
Hoe can we measure task performance and gain insight into expertise?
dual cognitive task performance
81
which errors have a linear relationship with total variability
VE and CE
82
effect size 0.10
small
83
effect size 0.30
medium
84
effect size 0.50
large
85
chronometric approach
measure timings between input and output to infer how much processing happened between
86
RT is related to
amount of processing of a stimulus or task
other factors affecting RT: fatigue or drugs
87
correlation between rxn time and processing
positive: as one increases so does the other
88
simple Reaction Time
a task involving reacting to ONE stimulus with 1 response
*correlated with age
89
what are simple RT tasks affected by
fatigue, attention, sensory modality of the cue (visual, hearing, feel)
90
parallel processing
overlapping processes - 2 or more stages occurring at once
91
Serial Processing
processing in sequential order
92
does human information processing occur in serial or parallel
-some steps can occur in parallel under certain conditions
-some steps must occur in sequence in certain conditions
93
Stimulus indetification
first, individual must perceieve the stimulus, involving stimulus detection then identification, then sensed and processed until it contacts memory
94
Sensation vs perception
sensation involved activation of sensory receptors, perception involved interpreting snesations
95
Sensation
-activating sensory receptors
-sensory receptors have a minimum amout of stimulation required to detect a stimulus
-can be affected by attention at both the behavioural and neural level
96
Perception
-involced interpreting sensations
-involves combination and integration of numerous sources of information to form a percept
-we move from sensation to perception
97
stimulus detection is affected by
clarity and intensity & prediction
98
Response selection
-after stimulus is detected, actor must decide what response to initiate
99
stimulus-response alternatives
explains relationship between RT and number of response alternatives ex. choice RT
100
Choice RT
a RT task where participant is presented more than one possible stimulus and the required response is dependent on that stimulus
101
Hicks Law
-the time it takes to make a response is related to the number of stimulus response alternatives
-Choice RT increases nearly constant amount when S-R slternatives are doubled (log-linear relationship)
102
BITS of information
Log2(N) = 1 bit
the amount of information required to reduce the uncertainty by half
** least amount of binary decisions
103
in hicks law, what is the y intercept experimentally?
rxn time when x=0, therefore 0 bits of information, 1 stimulus present with 1 response (SIMPLE RT)
104
in hicks law, what is the slope experimentally?
amount of rxn time added when you add a stimulus
105
practical applications of hicks law
prevents anticipation
106
Go/No-go tasks
reacting to 1 stimulus and not reacting to another
107
Donders subtractive method:
Simple RT: Response programming
Choice RT: Stimulus identification, response selection, response programming
Go/No-go: stimulus identification, response programing
108
other factors affecting response selection
features of S-R relationship:
-stimulus-response compatibiltity (mapping of the response to the action, spatially)
109
Simon Effect
-irrelevant spatial features have effects on RT
-found by comparing responses of spatially compatible trials vs incompatible trials
110
The joint-simon effect
co-representing actions
-when two people perform a simon-task, they perform similar to when performing a two-choice task
111
Simon task
participants responded to auditory cues played in either left or right ear. Had to press right when "right" or left when "left" was said.
112
Joint simon task
two people performing simon task but with pointer and mouse
113
results from joint simon task
results from two-choice and joint go/nogo are identical
-even though the choices are the same for joint go/nogo and individual go/nogo, the results differ and show joint the same as two choice
114
Sebanz 2003
-participants responded faster in compatible than non compatible
-when performing task with another person, participants also showed faster responses in compatible
-in individual go/nogo there were no differences between compatible and incompatible
115
2 parts os stimulus identification
sensation and perception
116
response selction affected by:
-number of S-R alternatives (hicks law)
-stimulus-response compatibility
-actions of others
117
simple RT number of stimuli choices
1
118
Simple Rt number of response choices
1
119
Go no go number of stimuli choices
2
120
go no go number of response choices
1
121
choice rt number of stimulus choices
2
122
choice rt number of response choices
2
123
go no go - simple RT =
stimulus identification
124
Choice RT - go no go =
response selection
125
Response Programming
transformation/translation of the action concept into the muscular actions that will achieve the goal
**the final set of processes that allow the individual to communicate w the environment
126
what occurs during response programming?
-sensorimotor transformations
-events could be related to memory
-involved preparation of relevant motor structures
127
Henry and Rogers (2003)
-research on response programming
-compared reaction time for 3 movements (life finger, life finger reach to ball, life finger hit ball press button then reach ball again)
-discovered: more complex movements are, the more time it takes for same initial movement
128
movement complexities
-Accuracy requirement; size of goal
-movement components; how many individual movements
-Movement duration; time from beginning to end
129
what happens when there is a long pause between individual movements
RT did not increase
130
Knapp and Erwin
-told participants response duration and calculated rxn time
-increased duration requirement means increased rxn time
131
Programming a trajectory
-proponents of sensory-coding theories of motor behaviour argue that we plan a point-to-point visual trajectory
-based on idea that neural activation patterns in motor areas represent spatial goals in a visual reference frame
132
Batista & Newsome: evidence for trajectory programming
hypothesis: brain maps representation where arm is in space
Found: neural response was highest when arm matched goal position
133
Motor Programming theory:
a prestructured set of movement commands that defines the essential details of a skilled action with minimal or no involvement of sensory feedback
**during response programming, the motor program to achieve the action is specified
134
Evidence of motor programming (wadman)
agonist & antagonist muscles have opposite timing, meaning programmed entire movement prior to the movement happening
135
Criticism of motor programs
storage problem, and degrees of freedom problem
136
Storage problem
imagine if every movement was a distinct motor program - it would require much more space to store them all, we would not have enough capacity
137
Degrees of freedom problem
there are too many degrees of freedom to control (to many moving parts)
138
Berntsteins Dynamical Systems Theory
Stereotypes similarities of movement patterns are not represented in motor programs but emerge naturally due to complex mechanics
139
what does dynamical systems theory solve
degrees of freedom problem; explains expertise and freezing the right DoFs
140
what field does motor programming originate from?
cognitive psychology
141
what field does dynamical systems originate from?
engineering, biomechanics, & rehab
142
can responses be prepared in advance
yes
143
Ways to reduce anticipation
multiple types of stimuli, diff time between stimulus, reduce clarity & intensity
144
anticipation means
removal/reduction of response selection stage
145
type sof anticipation
temporal: when
spatial: what&where
146
Rosenbaum
used precuing technique to determine which information is more useful for facilitating response programming (narrowing choices)
ex.
Arm (Lor R)
Extent (close or far)
Direction (up or down)
147
what was found from precuing variables
-precusing ANY of the variables (arm, extent or direction) led to a decreased RT
most RT reduction: ARM
Least RT reduction: direction
148
how to study anticipation
startle respose via triggering prepared movement at short latency
*act as subcortical trigger
149
what is response programming affected by
complexity, duration, & speed accuracy tradeoffs
150
what does movement complexity do to processing time
increase it
151
When is a startle experiment to test anticipation not effective
with 2 response alternatives startle has no effect, startle works better when 1 stimulus with 1 response
152
Sensation
-activation of sensory receptors
-specialized sensory organs are activated by stimulus
153
Perception
-interception of sensory signals
-combination and integration of sensory (afferent) information from multiple sources
154
Other important senses (in addition to our 5 main)
-Balance (equilibrioception)
-body position (proprioception)
-temperature (thermoception)
-pain sence (nociception)
155
what sense is being debated about
hydroceptors: do humans have wetness receptors
156
Sensory Infomration is used for
movement planning (feedforward) and movement control (feedback)
157
the use of sensory feedback to modify motor commands is referred to as
closed-loop control
158
Closed loop control
1. recieves input
2. goal defined via reference mechanism
3. executive level relays instructions to achieve goal
4. effector level enats instructions that are relayed (produces output)
5. sensors produce feedback
6. feedback compared to goal
159
examples of closed loop control
cruise control or an electric kettle
160
visual sensation begins at
the eye; light from object is refracted and focused onto retina
161
Photoreceptors
light sensitive cells line the back of the retina
162
teo main types of photoreceptors
rods and cones
163
rods
motion detection, peripheral, react to shadows&motion
164
cones
central, fine detail
165
Firing rate of rods
binary response, fire then decrease firing rate, # of rods increases away from center of eye
166
Firing Rate of cones
graded response, provide different degrees, most abundant at center of eye
167
Visual System
visual info travels through optic n. and various subcortical structures to the lateral geniculate nucleus (in thalamus) then it is relayed to primary visual cortex
168
primary visual cortex
where visual features such as stimulus direction, speed and object orientation
169
from the primary visual cortex, where can information travel
one of two visual streams: dorsal or ventral
170
Dorsal stream
where visual information travels to the parietal areas
-aka vision for action stream
-inputs form full visual field
-involved w vision to perform action
171
Ventral Stream
where visual information travels to temporal lobe
-aka vision for perecption stream
-inputs from the LGN mainly from central vision
172
Where does evidence for two visual streams come from
perception-action dissociation experiments
173
what does it mean if a participant can tell orientation but cannot guide hand to object (impaired action intact perception)
optic ataxia; stroke affecting more parietal (dorsal) and less temporal lobe
174
visual agonosia
stroke patient could act to put something through opening but could not perceive to match it up without doing action
**stroke is afffecting more temporal (ventral) less parietal
175
3 examples of evidence of dorsal and ventral streams
Muller-Lyer illusion, Shepard Tables
& Ebbinghaus-Tichner illusion
176
perception scales to illusions but what does not
grip aperature (action)
177
Parts of displacement trajectory
peak acceleration, peak velocity, peak deceleration, movement termination
178
Peak velocity
anything after this tells you a lot about the movement control
179
Gunslinger Effect
Person reacting to drawn gun often ends up surviving not the one who initiates the action
180
what did the displacement trajectory experiment show
more displacement a peak deceleration indicates using vidual feedback to adjust at the end of the movement
181
Roberts et al., 2017
-replicated gunslinger effect showing shorter time to peak acceleration for REACTED movements (compared to initiated)
-results suggest ventral stream may be used for limb control and dorsal for planning
-target influenced distance travelled to peak deceleration indicating influence later in movement
182
vision and balance
vision does not effect balance
-visual system indicated where head and eyes are in space
183
optic flow
when we move our head, the angle the light rays hit the retina changes
-the environment flows past us as head and body move
-gives info of our position and position of objects
184
mvoing room experiment
-as walls move we lose balance
-highly dependent on vision for body orientation
185
rate of change of size of retinal image
can indicate whether the object is coming toward or away from you and estimate time to contact (tau)
186
time to contact
directly porportional to the: size of image divided by rate of change of image
*true regardless of distance, size or velocity
187
Proprioception includes
-vestibular system
-sensory organs in the muscles/joints
-cutaneous receptors
188
Vestibular system
-important for balance and orientation
-located in inner ear
-otolith organs provide info about orientation w respect to gravity
-semicircular canals sense directions (horizontal, saggital and frontal)
189
otolith organs
utricle and saccule (sense linear accelerations)
190
how do semicircular canals work to sense ROTATIONS
-thick fluid canals displace hair cells (mechanoreceptors)
191
ways to disrupt vestibular system
changing polarity of fluid & giving false sense body is moving
192
why do our eyes stay stable when we move our heads
vestibular-ocular reflexes
(when we move our heads in one direction, our eyes slowly move in other direction)
193
nystagmus
alternating slow and fast movements
194
how to help overcome dizzy feeling
SPOTTING
-focus on visual stable
-turning head after body has undergone motion reduces time spinning
-train to tolerate more spinning via shifting sensory feedback to use more visual sources
195
Muscle Spindles
-provides information regarding muscle stretch
-fleshy part of muscle
-in line w muscle fibre
-when muscle is stretched, spindle is stretched
-
196
What are muscle spindles comprised of
intrafusal muscle fibers
-innervated by Ia afferent
-firing rate related to length and rate of change in length
197
Muscle spindle connects to
alpha motor neurons of muscle
-basis of stretch reflex
more stretch = more firing
198
motor neurons
cause contraction
199
inhibitory neuron
relaxes extensor muscle
200
Golgi Tendon Organs
-located at muscle tendon junction (highly sensitive to active muscle tension)
-each GTO is attached IN SERIES to small groups of muscle fibers
-contribute less to overall position than muscle spindles
201
Joint Receptors
-embedded in joint capsule where most stretch occurs)
-neural signals are strongest at end range of joint movement
-less involved in position sense than muscle spindles
202
Importance of proprioception
-plays key role in rapid-feedback based responses
-used to plan distances and vision to plan direction
-may be key feedback mechanism
203
what is propriocepive information obtained from
vestibular system, joints, tendons and muscles
204
Golgi tendon organs sense muscle
tension
205
muscle spindles sense muscle
stretch
206
issues with motor programming theory
-storage problem
-DoF problem
-Novelty problem
207
sensory information can be used as a
feedback mechanism
208
open loop control
-executive and effector level
-executive level sends motor program to effectors and effectors carry out the instructions without modification based on feedback
209
a response is open loop when
response unfolds without feedback
210
a system is open loop when
it does not take feedback into account
211
example open loop system
oven
212
where did the concept of feedforward control emerge form
eye movements
213
feedforward control involved a signal that
-readies the system for the motor command
-readies the system for some input
214
how do we know if the world is moving or our eyes are?
reafference: a copy og the motor command that was sent to muscles, is delivered to sensory regions in the brain. and we percieve the world as moving
215
efference copy
copy of motor command (sending motor info out of the CNS)
216
Kieran et al 2016
-saccade (eye) endpoints adjust to target jumps
-provides some evidence that eye movements could be affected by feedback
217
Efference copy in limbs
-prediction of action outcome and sensory consequences of action
218
Error Detection and Efference to test for existence of feedforward control
-active versus passive tasks
-participants are better at error estimate when they have efferent information
-predict outcome of their actions
219
why cant we tickle ourselves
we are predicting outcome and preparing for action
220
Blackmore et al
-as robot movement offset increased, trials were more ticklish
-sensory predictions were less accurate with greater hand-robot offsets
-ability to predict sensory consequences of our actions affects perception
221
Forward models
-used to establish predictions about the desired state
-tells sensory system what something should feel like
-establishes reference of correctness to compare based on sensory information
222
computational solution to motor program problems
-motor programs are generalized
-resembles a fucntion
therefore, motor program does not change but the input and output do,
223
Generalized motor program invariant features (not changed by user)
relative timing: timing of muscle activations relative to others
Relative force: force of muscle activiations relative to others
Sequence of movements: sequence of evens
224
inputs to the GMP
-overall duration
-overall fore
-limb (effector) used
*overall patterns do NOT change
225
Analogy for motor programming
DJ turn table
-change bass, tone, volume but it will always be done on the turn table
