Key Concepts Flashcards
1
Q
What is the A*-C economy?
A
A system in which schools concentrate their efforts on those pupils they see as most likely to gain table position.
2
Q
What is ageism?
A
The negative stereotyping of people on the basis of their age.
3
Q
Give an example of ageism.
A
The old are often portrayed as vulnerable, incompetent or irrational, and as a burden to society.
4
Q
What is alienation?
A
Where an individual or group feels socially isolated and estranged because they lack the power to control their lives and realise their true potential.
5
Q
Give an example of alienation.
A
Marx describes workers in capitalist society as alienated because they are exploited and lack control of the production process.
6
Q
What is assimilationism?
A
An approach to immigration policy that believes immigrants should adopt the language, values and customs of the ‘host community’ or country in which they settle.
7
Q
What is banding?
A
A form of streaming.
8
Q
What is a beanpole family?
A
A family that is vertically extended but not horizontally extended.
9
Q
Give an example of a beanpole family
A
Grandparents, parents and children but not aunts, uncles and cousins.
10
Q
What is birth rate?
A
The number of live births per thousand of the population per year.
11
Q
What is bourgeoisie?
A
A Marxist term for the capitalist class, the owners of the means of production (factories, machinery, raw materials, land etc.)
12
Q
What does Marx argue about the bourgeoisie?
A
Marx argues that the bourgeoisie’s ownership of the means of production also gives them political and ideological power.
13
Q
What is a case study?
A
Research that examines a single case or example, such as a single school, family, or workplace, often using several methods or sources.
14
Q
What is childhood?
A
A socially defined age-status. There are major differences in how childhood is defined, both historically and between cultures. Western societies today define children as vulnerable and segregate them from the adult world, but in the past they were part of adult society from an early age. These differences show that childhood is a social construction.
15
Q
What is the Civil Partnership?
A
The 2004 Civil Partnership Act gave same sex couples similar legal rights to married couples in respect of pensions, inheritance, tenancies and property.
16
Q
What are closed-ended questions?
A
Questions used in a social survey that allow only a limited choice of answers from a pre-set list. They produce quantitative data and the answers are often pre-coded for ease of analysis.
17
Q
Give an example of a closed-ended question.
A
“Will you vote in the next election?” where the choices are:
Yes
No
Don’t know
18
Q
What is the comparative method?
A
A research method that compares two social groups that are alike apart from one factor.
19
Q
Give an example of a comparative method.
A
Durkheim compared two groups that were identical apart from their religion in order to find out the effect of religion on suicide rates.
20
Q
When is the comparative method often used?
A
As an alternative to experiments.
21
Q
What is compensatory education?
A
Government education policies such as Operation HeadStart in the USA that seek to tackle the problem of under-achievement by providing extra support and funding to schools and families in deprived areas.
22
Q
Give an example of compensatory education in the UK.
A
SureStart.
23
Q
What is the comprehensive system?
A
A non-selective education system where all children attend the same type of secondary school.
24
Q
When was the comprehensive system introduced in England and Wales?
A
From 1965.
25
What are conjugal roles?
The roles played by husband and wife.
26
What are segregated conjugal roles?
Where the husband is breadwinner and the wife is homemaker, with leisure spent separately. In joint conjugal roles, husband and wife each perform both roles and spend their leisure time together.
27
What is content analysis?
A method of analysing the content of documents and media output to find out how often and in what ways different types of people or events appear.
28
Give an example of content analysis.
The Glasgow University Media Group (1976) used content analysis to reveal bias in how television new reported strikes.
29
What is a control group?
In experiments, scientists compare a control group and an experimental group that are identical in all respects. Unlike the experimental group, the control group isn't exposed to the variable under investigation and so provides a baseline against which any changes in the experimental group can be compared.
30
What is a correlation?
When two or more factors or variables vary together.
31
Give an example of a correlation.
There is a correlation between low social class and low educational achievement. However, the existence of a correlation between two variables does not necessarily prove that one causes the other. It may simply be a coincidence.
32
What is a correspondence principle?
Bowles and Gintis' concept describing the way that the organisation and control of schools mirrors or 'corresponds to' the workplace in capitalist society.
33
Give an example of a correspondence principle.
The control teachers exert over pupils mirrors the control managers exert over workers.
34
What is the Critical Race Theory (CRT)?
CRT sees racism as a deep-seated feature of society resulting not merely from the attitudes of individuals but from institutional racism.
35
What does the Critical Race Theory (CRT) identify?
CRT identifies several ways in which the educational system is institutionally racist, including selection, the ethnocentric curriculum and assessment.
36
What does the Critical Race Theory (CRT) argue?
CRT argues that racism cannot be removed merely by passing laws against it but requires direct action by oppressed groups.
37
What is cultural capital?
The knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities that the middle class transmit to their children. Bourdieu argues that educational success is largely based on possession of cultural capital, thus give m/c children an advantage.
38
What is cultural deprivation?
The theory that many w/c and black children are inadequately socialised and therefore lack the 'right' culture needed for educational success e.g their families don't instill the value of deferred gratification.
39
What is culture?
All those things that are learnt and shared by a society or group of people and transmitted from generation to generation through socialisation.
40
Give five examples of culture.
Shared norms, values, knowledge, beliefs and skills.
41
What is a curriculum?
Those things taught or learnt in educational institutions.
42
What does the overt or official curriculum include?
The overt or official curriculum includes the subjects, courses etc offered (e.g the national curriculum).
43
What does the hidden curriculum include?
while the hidden curriculum includes all those things learnt without being formally taught and often acquired simply through the everyday workings of the school, such as attitudes of obedience, conformity and competitiveness.
44
What is death rate?
The number of deaths per thousand of the population per year.
45
What is deferred gratification?
Postponing immediate rewards or pleasures, generally with the aim of producing a greater reward at a later date. It is seen as a characteristic of m/c culture.
46
Give an example of deferred gratification.
Staying in to revise rather than going out with friends, which will bring success in exams.
47
What is demography?
The study of population, including birth, death, fertility and infant mortality rates, immigration and emigration, and age structure, as well as the reasons for changes in these.
48
What is dependency culture?
Where people assume that the state will support them, rather than relying on their own efforts and taking responsibility for their families,
49
What do 'the new right' see 'the welfare state' as?
Over-generous, encouraging people to remain unemployed and dependent on benefit, and as responsible for the growing number or lone-parent families and rising crime rate.
50
What is dependency ratio?
The relationship between the size of the working population and the non-working or dependent population.
51
What is deviance?
Behaviour that doesn't conform to the norms of a society or group. Deviance is a social construction. Deviance is relative: what counts as a deviant varies between groups and cultures and over time.
52
What is a social construction?
Something that is defined or created by social groups
53
What is differentiation?
Distinguishing or creating differences between individuals or groups.
54
Give an example of differentiation in education.
Streaming is a form of differentiation that distinguishes between pupils on the basis of ability.
55
What does differentiation refer to in the study of stratification?
The process of distinguishing between people on the basis of class, gender, ethnic, age etc differences.
56
What is discrimination?
Treating people differently, whether negatively (disadvantaging them) or positively (advantaging them), usually because they are members of a particular social group.
57
What can people be discriminated for?
Gender, ethnicity, age, disability, sexuality, religion etc
58
Who produces public documents?
Organisations such as governments, schools, media etc.
59
What do public documents include?
Acts of parliament, school prospectuses, newspaper articles etc.
60
Who creates personal documents?
Individuals
61
What do personal documents provide?
First-person accounts of events and experiences.
62
What do personal documents include?
Diaries, letters, autobiographies etc.
63
What are both public and personal documents used as?
Secondary sources of qualitative data in sociological research.
64
What is domestic labour?
Work performed in the home.
65
Give three examples of domestic labour.
Childcare, cooking, and cleaning.
66
What do functionalists see domestic labour as?
A part of the expressive role performed by women.
67
What do feminists see domestic labour as?
A major source of women's oppression.
68
What is dual burden?
When a person is responsible for two jobs.
69
Who does a dual burden usually apply to?
Women who are in paid work but also responsible for domestic labour.
70
What is the educational triage?
The process whereby schools sort pupils into:
- Hopeless cases
- Those who will pass anyway
- Those with a potential to pass
And then concentrate their efforts on the last of these groups as a way to boost the school's exam league table position. Sorting may be based on stereotypical ideas about pupils' ability.
71
What is emotion work?
The work involved in meeting the emotional needs of other people.
72
Give an example of emotional work.
Looking after a sick child involves responding to emotional as well as physical needs.
Some sociologists argue that women carry a triple burden of housework, paid work and emotion work.
73
What is empathy?
An understanding of how another person thinks, feels or acts, achieved by putting oneself in their place.
74
What do interactionists do to achieve empathy?
Interactionists advocate the use of qualitative methods such as participant observation as a way of achieving empathy and obtaining data high in validity.
75
What is an empty shell marriage?
A marriage in name only, where a couple continues to live under the same roof but as separate individuals.
76
When might an empty shell marriage occur?
Where divorce is difficult for legal, religious or financial reasons, or where a couple decides to stay together for the sake of the children.
77
What are ethics?
Issues of right and wrong; moral principles or guidelines.
There are ethical objections to research that deceives or harms its participants or fails to obtain their informed consent.
78
What does ethnocentric mean?
Seeing or judging things in a biased way from the viewpoint of one particular culture.
79
Why has the National Curriculum been described as an ethnocentric curriculum?
It tends to value white, western music, literature, languages, history, religion etc and disregards or does not value black and Asian cultures.
80
What is an ethnic group?
People who share the same heritage, culture and identity, often including the same language and religion, and who see themselves as a distinct group.
81
Give an example of an ethnic group.
The Bangladeshi community in Britain.
As well as having ethnic minority groups, societies such as Britain have an ethnic majority.
82
What is the exchange theory?
The idea that people create, maintain or break off relationships depending on the costs and benefits of doing so
83
Give an example of the exchange theory.
A person may provide a relative with accommodation (cost) in return for help with childcare (benefit).
84
What is a laboratory experiment?
A test carried out in controlled conditions in an artificial setting (a lab) to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables.
85
What is a field experiment?
It has the same aim as a lab experiment but is carried out in a natural setting (e.g a street or workplace) not a lab.
86
What is exploitation?
Paying workers less than the value of their labour.
87
What is exploitation according to Marxists?
The process whereby the bourgeoisie extract surplus view or profit from the labour of the proletariat.
88
What do feminists see men as exploiting?
The domestic labour of women.
89
Who is the 'expressive role' of the family?
The caring, nurturing, 'homemaker' role in the family.
90
What do functionalists argue about the 'expressive role'?
Functionalists argue that women are biologically suited to performing this role, but feminists reject this.
91
What is extended family?
Any group of kin extended beyond the nuclear family. The family may be extended vertically, horizontally, or both.
92
Give an example of extended family.
People related by blood, marriage or adoption.
93
Give an example of vertical family.
Grandparents
94
Give an example of horizontal family.
Aunts, uncles, cousins
95
What is family diversity?
The idea that there is a range of different family types, rather than a single dominant one (such as the nuclear family).
96
What is family diversity associated with?
The postmodernist idea that in today's society, increasing choice about relationships is creating greater family diversity.
97
What are family practices?
The routine actions through which we create our sense of 'being a family member', such as doing the shopping or the DIY.
Morgan prefers the term to that of family structure because it conveys the idea that families are not 'things', but what their members actually do.
98
What is a family structure?
The composition of a group of people who live together as a family unit.
99
Give six examples of a family structure.
The nuclear family, extended family, reconstituted family, lone-parent and same-sex families.
100
What are families of choice (also called chosen families)?
People who are not necessarily related by blood or marriage but who feel a sense of belonging together and who choose to define themselves as family.
101
Give an example of a family of choice.
Gay and lesbian people who have created support networks of friends, relatives and so on who they regard as family.
102
What is the fertility rate?
The total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children women will have during their fertile years. For statistical purposes, this is defined as age 15-44.
103
What is feminism?
A sociological perspective and political movement that focuses on women's oppression and the struggle to end it.
Feminists argue that sociology has traditionally taken a 'male-stream' viewpoint that ignores women. Instead they examine women's experiences and study society from a female perspective.
104
What are the four different strands of feminism?
Marxist, radical, liberal and difference feminism.
105
What is Fordism?
A type of industrial production based on a detailed division of labour, using closely supervised, low-skilled workers and assembly-line technology to mass-produced standardised goods.
106
What is Fordism named after?
The car manufacturing techniques first introduced by the Ford Motor Company in the early 20th century.
107
What is a function?
The contribution that a part of society makes to the stability or well-being of society as a whole.
108
Give an example of a function.
According to Durkheim, one function of religion is to give individuals a sense of belonging to something greater than themselves and so integrate them into society.
109
What is the functional fit theory?
Parsons' theory that, with industrialisation, the structure of the family becomes nuclear to fit the needs of industrial society for a geographically and socially mobile labour force.
110
What is functionalism?
A consensus perspective in sociology that sees society as based on shared values into which members are socialised. It sees society as like an organism, each part performing functions to maintain the system as whole.
111
Give an example of functionalism.
The family and education system perform socialisation functions.
112
What is gender?
The social and cultural characteristics of men and women. Unlike sex differences, which are biological and inborn, gender differences in behaviour are cultural in origin and learned through gender role socialisation.
Definitions of masculinity and femininity are socially constructed and vary between cultures and social groups.
113
What are gender domains?
The tasks and activities that boys and girls see as the 'territory' of their respective genders
114
Give an example of gender domains.
Mending a car is seen as within the male gender domain.
115
How are children's beliefs about gender domains shaped?
By their early experiences and adults expectations.
116
What is globalisation?
The idea that the world is becoming increasingly interconnected and barriers are disappearing.
117
Give an example of globalisation.
As a result of instantaneous communication systems, deregulation of trade, the creation of global markets, and global media and culture.
Many see it as creating new risks, uncertainties and choices, and an increased rate of social change.
118
What is the habitus?
A concept introduced by Bourdieu. It refers to the learned, taken for granted ways of thinking, acting and being shared by a particular social class or group.
119
What does the habitus include?
It includes preferences for particular lifestyles and consumption patterns, and beliefs about what is realistic for members of that group to aim for.
120
What is the Hawthorne effect?
Where the subjects of a research study know they are being studied and begin to behave differently as a result, thereby undermining the study's validity.
121
Where does the term 'Hawthorne effect' come from?
The term comes from Elton Mayo's studies at the Hawthorne electrical plant.
122
What is a hierarchy?
An organisation or social structure based on a 'pyramid' of senior and junior positions and top-down control.
123
Give an example of a hierarchy.
An army with its different ranks and command from above.
124
What is a household?
A group of people who live together and share things such as meals, bills, facilities or chores, or one person living alone.
125
What is a hypothesis?
An untested theory or explanation, expressed as a statement. Sociologists seek to prove or disprove hypotheses by testing them against the evidence.
126
What is an ideal pupil?
An image held by teachers of the kind of pupil they prefer to teach: bright, hardworking, cooperative and so on.
127
Give an example of an ideal pupil.
Teachers are likely to see white, m/c pupils as ideal.
Reay found that high-achieving girls had to adopt a desexualised ideal female pupil identity.
128
What is an identity?
The individual's sense of self, influenced by socialisation and interactions with others; a sense of belonging to a community.
129
What is the postmodernist view on identity?
Postmodernists see identity as a choice that individuals make from among different sources of identity, such as gender, ethnic group, religion, sexuality, leisure interests, nationality etc.
130
What is ideology?
Originally a Marxist idea meaning a set of beliefs that serve the interests of a dominant social group by justifying their privileged position.
131
What does the term 'ideology' usually imply?
The term usually implies that the beliefs are false or only partially true; e.g Bowles and Gintis argue that meritocracy is a myth.
132
What is immediate gratification?
A preference for immediate pleasure or reward, without regard for the longer-term consequences.
133
Give an example of immediate gratification.
Going out with friends instead of doing one's homework.
134
What do cultural deprivation theorists argue about immediate gratification?
W/c children are socialised into the value of immediate gratification and that this explains their educational failure.
135
What does impression management involve?
Manipulating the impression of ourselves that we give to others.
136
What does Erving Goffman compare? (impression management).
Performing a social role with acting on stage.
We act differently when we are 'front of stage', consciously playing the part (e.g a teacher in front of the class) from when we are backstage (e.g the teacher relaxing in the staff-room).
137
What is industrialisation?
The shift from an agricultural economy to one based on factory production.
138
When did industralisation occur in Britain?
From about the late 18th to the mid 19th centuries.
139
What does industralisation often occur along with?
Urbanisation.
140
What does the individualisation thesis argue?
That as a result of the weakening of the influence of traditional structures and norms (such as those governing personal relationships), individuals are now freer to make their own life choices.
141
What does the individualisation thesis lead to?
More family diversity, risk and instability.
142
What does the connectedness thesis argue?
We are not simply isolated individuals: social structures such as class and gender limit choice and diversity.
143
What is individualism?
The belief that the individual is more important that the group or community.
In modern and postmodern society, individualism becomes more important than in traditional society and individuals' actions are influenced by calculations of their own self-interest than by a sense of obligation to others.
144
What is the infant mortality rate?
The number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand live births per year.
145
What is informed consent?
Where those taking part in a study have agreed to do so and understand the purpose of the study, the uses to which its findings may be put, and its possible effects.
146
What is institutional racism?
Discrimination that is built into the everyday workings of institutions such as schools and colleges.
This discrimination may be unconscious rather than deliberate, but is a deeply ingrained, taken-for-granted part of the institutions culture.
147
What is the instrumental role?
The breadwinner or provider role in the family.
| Functionalist see this as the mans role.
148
What is interactionism?
A sociological perspective that focuses on small-scale (micro-level) interactions between individuals and groups, rather than on the large-scale workings of society.
149
What do interactionists seek?
To understand the meanings that social actors give to actions and situations, usually by using qualitative research methods.
150
What is interpretivism?
A term covering a range of perspectives including interactionism.
151
What do interpretivists focus on?
How we construct our social worlds through the meanings we create and attach to events, actions and situations.
152
What methods do interpretivists favour?
Qualitative methods
153
How do interpretivists view humans?
Fundamentally different from the natural phenomena studied by scientist, in that we have free will, consciousness and choice.
154
What is an interview schedule?
The list of questions to be asked in an interview
155
Why is an interview schedule useful?
It allows some standardisation of the interviewing process, since all interviews will use the same schedule of questions.
156
What are interviews?
A method of gathering information by asking questions orally, either face-to-face or by telephone.
157
What questions are used during structured (formal) interviews?
Pre-set, standardised, usually closed-ended questions producing qualitative data.
158
What questions are used during unstructured (informal or depth) interviews?
As they are more like a guided conversation, open questions are used which produces qualitative data.
159
What questions do semi-structured interviews use?
Both open and closed-ended questions
160
What is labelling?
The process of attaching a definition or meaning to an individual or group.
Often the label is a stereotype that defines all members of a group in the same way.
161
Give an example of labelling
Teachers may label a pupil as a trouble maker.
162
What is legitimation?
Justifying something by making it seem fair and natural.
163
What is the main function of ideology?
Legitimation
164
What do Marxists argue about ideology?
Marxists argue that institutions in capitalist society such as education, the media and religion are 'ideological state apparatuses' whose function is to legitimate inequality.
165
What are life chances?
The chances that different social groups have of obtaining those things society regards as desirable (e.g educational qualifications) or of suffering those things regarded as undesirable.
166
What do statistics on education, health, income etc show? (life chances)
That opportunities vary by class, gender and ethnic group.
167
What is a life course analysis?
An approach focusing on the meanings family members give to life events and choices.
168
Give an example of a life course analysis.
Deciding to leave home, get divorced etc.
169
What type of interviews are used during life course analysis?
Unstructured interviews to uncover meanings and understand people's choices about relationships and how these may lead to family diversity.
170
What is life expectancy?
How long on average people who are born in a given year can expect to live.
171
What does 'living apart together' (LATs) mean?
Couples who are in a significant relationship, but no married or cohabiting. Some sociologists suggest that LATs may reflect a trend towards less formalised relationships.
172
What is a longitudinal study?
Study of a sample of people (sometimes called a panel) in which information is collected at regular intervals over an extended period of time.
173
Give an example of a longitudinal study.
The National Child Development Study has been running since 1958.
174
What methods are usually used during a longitudinal study?
Questionnaires and interviews, but other methods may also be employed.
175
What is macro-level?
Theories such as functionalism and Marxism that focus on the large scale. These theories see the individual as shaped by society.
176
Give an example of something which is macro level.
On the social structure as a whole or on the relationships between social institutions like the education system and the economy.
177
What is marketisation?
The policy of introducing market forces of supply and demand into areas run by the state such as education and the NHS.
178
What started the marketisation of education?
The 1988 Education Reform Act began the marketisation of education by encourage competition between schools and choice for parents.
179
What is Marxism?
A conflict perspective based on the ideas of Karl Marx. It sees society as divided into two opposed classes, one of which exploits the labour of the other.
180
Give an example of Marxism.
In capitalist society, the bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat. Marx predicted the proletariat would unite to overthrow capitalism and create a classless society.
Marxist sociologists argue that institutions such as education and the media function to maintain capitalism.
181
What is material deprivation in one word?
Poverty
182
What is material deprivation?
A lack of basic necessities such as adequate diet, housing, clothing or the money to buy these things.
183
What does the material deprivation theory explain in education?
W/c underachievement as result of the lack of such resources e.g parents are unable to afford educational aids, overcrowding deprives children of a quiet study area etc.
184
What is meritocracy?
An educational or social system where everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed and where individuals' rewards and status are achieved by their own efforts rather than ascribed by their gender, class or ethnic group.
185
What is micro-level?
Theories such as interactionism that focus on small-scale, face-to-face interaction, e.g between teacher and pupils in a classroom These theories see individuals constructing society through their interactions.
186
What is migration?
The movement of people from place to place.
Migrants may settle permanently in a new place, stay temporarily or move to and from places (circular migration).
187
Can migration be internal?
Yes. It can be internal, within a given society, or transnational, crossing national frontiers.
188
What is mobility?
Movement; change of position.
189
What is geographical mobility?
In which people move from one place to another (e.g in search of work).
190
What is social mobility?
In which people change position or status in a hierarchy or stratification system.
191
What do functionalists argue about mobility?
Functionalists argue that the geographical and social mobility of the nuclear family enable it to meet the needs of industrial society.
192
What is the term model minorities used to describe?
A term used to describe ethnic minority groups who achieve above average results.
193
Give an example of model minorities.
Chinese and Indian pupils.
194
What does Gillborn argue about model minorities?
Gillborn argues that the achievements of model minorities are wrongly used to justify the claim that the education system cannot be institutionally racist.
195
Give three examples of modernists perspectives.
Functionalism
Marxism
Positivism
196
What is modernism?
Modernist perspectives believe that society has a fairly clear-cut, predictable structure and that it's possible to gain true and certain scientific knowledge of how society functions. This knowledge can be used to achieve progress to a better society.
197
What is a moral panic?
An over-reaction to a perceived problem where a group is labelled as a threat to society's values or 'folk devil'.
The media play an important by exaggerating the scale of the problem and channelling demands that something be done about it. However, steps taken to deal with the problem may 'amplify' it.
198
What is the definition of multicultural?
A society or institution that recognises and gives value to different cultures and/or ethnic groups.
199
Give an example of something multicultural.
Multicultural education teaches children about the cultures of other groups, not just the dominant or majority culture.
200
What is the myth of meritocracy?
Functionalists argue that the education system is meritocratic, but Bowles and Gintis claim that meritocracy is an ideology legitimating inequality by falsely claiming that everyone has equal opportunity and that unequal rewards are the 'natural' result of unequal ability.
201
What is natural change?
The difference between the number of births and the number of deaths in a population, resulting in either a natural disease or natural decrease.
202
What is net migration?
The difference between the number of immigrants entering a country and the number of emigrants leaving it.
203
What is neo-liberalism?
The theory that competition, choice, and privatisation are the most efficient way to run the economy, free from state regulation.
204
What does neo-liberalism favour?
Low taxation and reduced state spending on education, healthcare etc.
205
What are individuals seen as by neo-liberalists?
Individuals are seen as consumers who are free to make their own choices (e.g about choice of school, or whether to apply to university) and obliged to live with the consequences.
206
What is the New Right?
A conservative political perspective whose supporters believe in self-reliance and individual choice rather than dependence on the state.
207
What does the New Right believe in?
They believe in applying free market principles e.g the marketisation of education and argue that generous welfare benefits encourage the growth of an underclass
208
What is new vocationalism?
The idea that education should be primarily about meeting the needs of the economy, especially by equipping young people with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values needed to prepare them for work.
209
What has new vocationalism given a rise to?
Since the 1970s it has given rise to educational initiatives such as the Youth Training Scheme, BTEC and vocational GCSEs.
210
What is non-participant observation?
A primary research method where the observer records events without taking part in them
211
Give an example of non-participant observation.
A sociologist might observe and record how gender roles influence children's play without taking part.
212
In sociology, which method is used more? Participant or non-participant observation?
Participant observation.
213
What are norms?
Social rules, expectations or standards that govern the behaviour expected in particular situations.
214
Give two examples of formal norms.
Written rules or laws.
215
Give an examples of an informal norm.
Rules of politeness (manners).
216
What is a nuclear family?
A two-generation family of a man and women and their dependent children, own or adopted.
217
What is objectivity?
The absence of bias or preconceived ideas.
218
What does objectivity imply?
It implies that we can look at things as they really are, without our opinions or values getting in the way (and thus we can get the truth.
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How do positivists believe sociology can achieve objectivity?
By modelling itself on the natural science, using methods to keep sociologists detached from their research subjects.
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What are official statistics?
Quantitative data collected by the government.
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How can official statistics be collected?
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By registration (e.g the law requires parents to register births).
Official surveys (e.g the ten-yearly Census of the entire population).
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What are open-ended questions?
Questions in a social survey that allow respondents to answer as they wish, in their own words.
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Why are answers provided from an open-ended question harder to analyse?
Answers are harder to analyse because they cannot be pre-coded.
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Give an example of an open-ended question.
"How did you feel about being excluded from school?"
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What is operationalisation?
The process of turning a sociological concept or theory into something measurable.
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Give an example of operationalisation.
A sociologist studying the effect of social class on educational achievement might use parental occupation to measure the concept 'social class'.
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What is parentocracy?
Literally, 'rule by parents'. The concept is associated with marketised education systems, which are based on an ideology of parental choice of school.
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Which class may benefit from parentocracy?
M/c parents may benefit from parentocracy because they have more economic and cultural capital and are better placed to exercise choice.
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What is participant observation?
A primary research method in which the sociologists studies a group by taking a role within it and participating in its activities.
It may be overt, where other participants are aware of the researchers true identity and motive.
Alternatively, it may be covert (undercover), where the sociologist's identity and purpose are kept secret.
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What is patriarchy?
Literally, rule by the father.
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What do feminists use patriarchy to describe?
Feminists use the term to describe a society based on male domination; a system or ideology of male power over women.
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What do child liberationists argue? (patriarchy, feminism).
Child liberationists argue that children are victims of 'age patriarchy' - the domination of fathers, or adults generally.
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What is a pilot study?
A small-scale trial run, usually of a social survey, conducted before the main study.
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What is the basic aim of a pilot study?
The basic aim is to iron out any problems,clarify questions and their wording, give interviewers practice etc, so that an necessary changes can be made before the main study is carried out.
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What is polarisation?
A process that results in the creation of two opposite extremes.
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Give an example of polarisation.
Pupils' responses to labelling and streaming in schools can create a pro-school and an anti-school pupil subculture.
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What does Marx describe in the study of stratification?
How in capitalist society the class structure becomes polarised into a wealthy bourgeoisie and impoverished proletariat.
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What is population (in a social survey)?
In a social survey, the population (sometimes called the 'survey population') is all the members of the group that the researcher is interested in.
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Give an example of population (in a social survey).
In a study of political opinions, the population may be the entire electorate.
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What is positivism?
The belief that society is made up of 'social facts' that can be studied scientifically to discover laws of cause and effect.
Durkheim took official stats on suicide as social facts and tried to produce a law explaining why suicide rates vary between groups.
With such knowledge, sociologists would be able to find solutions to social problems.
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What is post-Fordism?
A type of industrial production. A highly skilled, adaptable workforce, combined with computerised technology, means that production takes the form of 'flexible specialisation', able to respond swiftly to changing consumer demands and to produce for a variety of small, customised 'niche' markets.
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What is post-modernism?
A perspective that rejects the modernists' belief in progress and their view that we can have certain, true knowledge of society that will enable us to improve it.
Society has become so unstable and diverse that it is now impossible to produce any absolute explanations. No one theory is 'truer' than any other; theories such as Marxism and functionalism are merely viewpoints.
Instead sociology should concentrate on reflecting and celebrating and celebrating social diversity.
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What is primary data?
Information collected first hand by sociologists themselves for their own research purposes.
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Give examples of primary data
Participant observation
Social surveys
Experiments
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What is privatisation?
The transfer of industries or services previously owned by the state (the public sector) to ownership by private business (the private sector), who run them to make a profit.
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Give examples of privatisation.
The privatisation of parts of the education system, such as building and running of schools.
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Who are the proletariat?
The working class in capitalist society. They own no means of production and are 'wage slaves', forced to sell their labour-power to the bourgeoisie in order to survive.
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What is a pure relationship?
One which exists solely to meet each partners needs. Couples stay together for love, happiness or sexual attraction, rather than because of tradition or duty, or for the sake of the children.
According to Giddens, it's increasingly regarded as the only acceptable basis for a relationship.
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What is qualitative data?
Information, usually expressed in words, about peoples thoughts, feelings, motivations, attitudes, values etc.
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How is qualitative data obtained?
From qualitative methods and sources such as participant observation, unstructured interviews, diaries and letters.
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What is the aim of qualitative data?
It aims to give an insight into what it is like to be in another persons 'shoes'.
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What is quantitative data?
Information in numerical form (percentages, tables, graphs etc.)
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List two important sources of quantitative data.
Official statistics and the results of social surveys.
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What is a questionnaire?
Lists of questions.
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When are questionnaires widely used?
Written or self-completion questionnaires are widely used in large-scale social surveys, where they may be sent out and returned by post.
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Why do questionnaires tend to use mainly closed-ended questions with pre-coded answers?
For ease of analysis.
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What is racism?
A system of beliefs that defines people as superior or inferior, and justifies, and justifies their unequal treatment, on the basis of biological differences such as skin colour.
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What does individual racism refer to?
The prejudiced views and discriminatory behaviour of individuals.
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When does institutional racism exist?
Institutional racism exists when the routine ways an organisation operates have racist outcomes regardless of the intentions of the individuals within it.
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What is a reconstituted family?
A stepfamily, in which one or both partners has children from a previous relationship.
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What makes a piece of research reliable?
A piece of research is reliable if it produces exactly the same results (a replica) when repeated using identical methods and procedures.
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Which type of method is most reliable?
Quantitative methods such as experiments and questionnaires are more reliable than qualitative methods because they use standardised procedures that are easier to replicate e.g a questionnaire asking all respondents the same set of questions.
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What is a representative sample?
A researcher may choose to study a sample of a larger group. If the sample is representative, those in it will be typical of the larger group. This will allow the findings to be generalised, i.e. applied to all memebers of the group, not just those in the sample.
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What is reproduction?
The recreation or continuation of something into future generations.
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Give an example of reproduction.
Marxists argue that schooling reproduces the class structure by failing working-class pupils so that they can take working-class jobs.
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What is the 'reserve army of labour'?
A Marxist concept describing groups who can be brought into the workforce when there is a labour shortage as the capitalist economy expands during a boom, and discarded when it contracts.
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When were women used as a reserve army of labour?
During the two world wars, returning afterwards to their primary domestic role.
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What is the response rate?
The proportion of those people included in a social survey who actually reply or respond to the questions asked.
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Why is a high response rate important?
To help ensure that findings are representative.
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What is a role?
How someone who occupies a particular status is expected to act.
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Give an example of a role.
Someone playing the role of a bus driver is expected to drive safely, stop for passengers, charge the correct fare etc.
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What is a sample?
A smaller group of people selected from the larger survey population to take part in a study.
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Why may people chose to study a sample instead of a whole population?
It may be too costly or time-consuming to study the whole population in which we are interested, so we choose a sample to study instead.
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What is sampling?
The process of selecting a sample.
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What is the aim of sampling?
The aim of sampling is usually to select a sample that is representative of the wider survey population, so as to allow the study's findings to be generalised.
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Give four examples of types of sampling.
Random, stratified random, quota and snowball sampling.
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What is a sampling frame?
The list of people from which a sample for a social survey is selected.
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Give an example for a sampling frame.
A school roll could be the sampling frame for a survey of pupils.
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What should a sampling frame list?
It should list all the members of the survey population that the sociologist is interested in studying, though this is not always possible e.g there is no complete list of all criminals (since some are not caught).
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What is secondary data?
Information collected not by sociologists themselves for their own research purposes, but by other people or organisations for non-sociological purposes.
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Why do sociologists make extensive use of secondary data?
Sociologists make extensive use of this 'second hand' information because it is often free or cheap, readily available and covers large numbers.
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What do secondary sources of data include?
Official statistics, the media and personal documents.
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What is secularisation?
The decline of religion; the process whereby religious beliefs, practices and institutions lose their importance or influence.
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Give an example of secularisation.
Fewer couples now marry in church and many people disregard religious teachings on issues like divorce, homosexuality etc.
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What is selection?
In education, the process of choosing and allocating pupils to a particular school, class, stream etc.
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Give an example of selection.
In the tripartite system after 1944, the 11+ exam selected pupils supposedly on the basis of ability for either grammar or secondary modern school.
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What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
Where a prediction made about a person or group comes true simply because it has been made.
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Give an example of a self-fulfilling prophecy.
In predicting that some pupils will do badly, teachers will treat them in line with these lower expectations. This will discourage the pupils from trying and make the prediction come true. The prediction is a form of labelling.
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How does a self-fulfilling prophecy work?
It works by changing the individual's self-image to bring it in line with the expectations that others have of them.
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What is separatism?
A radical feminist idea that women should live independently of men as the only way to free themselves from the patriarchal oppression of the heterosexual family.
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What is sexism?
Prejudice and discrimination on the grounds of sex; e.g seeing girls as better suited for courses in 'caring' subjects.
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What is sexuality?
Sexual orientation; a person's sexual preference; e.g heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual etc.
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What are social action theories?
Social action theories see individuals as having free will and choice, and the power to create society through their actions and interactions, rather than being shaped by society.
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List one social action theory.
Interactionism is the best-known theory of this type, postmodernism also has certain features in common with social action theories.
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What is social class?
Social groupings or hierarchy based on differences in wealth, income or occupation.
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Which two opposed classes did Marx identify?
Marx identified two opposed classes in capitalist society, the bourgeoisise and proletariat.
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What do many sociologists use occupation to distinguish?
Many sociologists use occupation to distinguish between a manual w/c and a non-manual m/c. Some also identify an underclass beneath the w/c.
298
What is social construction?
Where something is created by social. processes, rather than simply occurring naturally. When something is socially cons, it is likely to vary historically and between culturestructed
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Give an example of social construction
Interpretivists argue that official crime statistics are socially constructed through interactions with the police and suspects.
300
Give three examples of things that sociologists see as social constructs?
Childhood, gender, identity etc
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What is social control?
The means by which society tries to ensure that its members behave as others expect them to. Control can be formal (e.g. the law) or informal (e.g. peer pressure).
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How can individuals be encouraged to conform to societies norms and values?
Negative sanctions (punishment) may be threatened or positive sanctions (rewards) offered to encourage individuals to conform to societies norms and values.
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What is social policy?
The actions, plans and programmes of goverment bodies and agencies that aim to deal with a problem or achieve a goal
304
Give an example of a social policy.
Raising levels of educational attainment
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What are policies often based on? (social policies)
Policies are often based on laws that provide the framework within which these agencies operate.
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What is a social survey?
Any research method that involves systematically collecting information from a group of people (either a sample or the whole target population, e.g. the census) by asking them questions.
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What do social surveys usually involve?
Usually, this involves using written questionnaires or structured interviews and the questions are standardised.
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What is socialisation?
The process by which an individual learns or internalises the culture of society.
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What is primary socialisation?
Primary socialisation occurs largely within the family and involves acquiring basic skills and values.
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What is secondary socialisation?
Secondary socialisation takes place within educational institutions and includes acquisition of knowledge and skills needed for work .
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List three examples of socialisation.
Other agencies of socialisation include peer groups, the mass media and religion.
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What are speech codes?
Patterns or ways of using language. This code is used in education, giving m/c children an advantage.
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What is Bernstein's speech codes theory?
Bernstein argues that the w/c use only the context-bound restricted code, with short, grammatically simple sentences and limited vocabulary. The m/c use the context-free elaborated code, with complex sentences and which is able to describe abstract .ideas.
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What is the stabilisation of adult personalities?
According to Parsons, one of the two functions of the nuclear family along with primary socialisation. It is a place where adults can relax and release tensions, enabling them to return to the workplace ready to meet its demands. This is functional for the efficiency of the economy.
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What is a status?
A position in society.
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When does an ascribed status occur?
Ascribed status occurs where our position in society is determined by fixed characteristics that we are born with and cannot change.
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Give an example of an ascribed status.
Gender, ethnicity or family of orgin.
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When does an achieved status occur?
Achieved status occurs where an individuals position is the result of their effort and ability.
319
Give an example of an achieved status
Getting into university.
320
What is a stereotype?
A simplified, one-sided and often negative image of a group or individual which assumes that all members of that group share the same characteristics
321
Give an example of a stereotype.
The image that all black boys are disruptive and unruly.
322
What is a stigma?
A negative label or mark of disapproval, discredit or shame attached to a person, group or characteristic.
323
What is stigma used to justify?
The stigma is used to justify the exclusion of the individual from normal social inclusion.
324
Give an example of a stigma
In the past, divorcees were often stigmatised and excluded from 'respectable' company.
325
What is stratification?
The division of society into hierarchy of unequal groups. The inequalities may be of wealth, power and/or status. Members of difference groups usually have different life chances.
326
What may stratification systems be based on?
Stratification systems may be based on differences in social class, ethnic group, age, gender, religion etc.
327
What is streaming?
Where children are separated into different ability groups or classes ('streams') and then each ability group is taught separately from the others for all subjects; the opposite of mixed-ability teaching.
328
What are structural theories?
See individuals as entirely shaped by the way society is structured or organised Marxism and most types of feminism are usually regarded as structural theories.
329
Give an example of a structural theory.
Functionalism sees society as socialising individuals into shared norms and values that dictate how they will behave.
330
What is a subculture?
A group of people within society who share norms, values, beliefs and attitudes that are in some ways different from or opposed to the mainstream culture
331
Give an example of a subculture
An anti-school subculture formed by pupils in lower streams.
332
What is subjectivity?
Bias, lack of objectivity, where the individual's own viewpoint influences their perception or judgement.
333
Why do interpretivists believe sociology is inevitably subjective?
Since it involves understanding other humans by seeing the world through their eyes.
334
What is symbolic capital?
A concept introduced by Bourdieu. It refers to the status, recognition and sense of worth we are able to obtain from others, especially those of a similar class position to us.
335
What did Archer et al discover about working class girls and symbolic capital?
Archer et al found that w/c girls gained symbolic capital from their peers by performing a hyper-heterosexual feminine, 'Nike' identity, but that this brought conflict with the school's m/c ethos.
336
What is symbolic violence?
A concept introduced by Bourdieu. It refers to the harm done by denying symbolic capital (status and value)
337
Give an example of symbolic violence.
By defining someones culture as worthless. Archer et all found that schools devalue w/c pupils' style preferences as tasteless.
338
What is a symmetrical family?
A nuclear family with more equal and join conjugal roles, in which the husbands participate in domestic labour as well as being breadwinners, and wives go out to work as well as being homemakers. T he couple spend their leisure time together and are more home-centred.
339
What is triangulation?
The use of two or more different methods or sources of data so that they complement each other, the strengths of one countering the weaknesses of the other and vice versa
340
Give an example of triangulation.
Using both a qualitative method such as participant observation and quantitative method such as structured interviews.
341
What is the tripartite system?
The system of secondary education created by the 1944 Education Act, based on three types of school. The 11+ exam was used to identify pupils' aptitudes and abilities. Those identified as have academic ability (mainly m/c) went to grammar schools; most w/c children went to secondary modern schools. Although replaced in most areas after 1965, the tripartite system still continues in some areas.
342
Who are the underclass?
Those at the lowest level of the class structure; a class below the w/c with a separate, deviant subculture and lifestyle, including a high rate of lone-parent families, male unemployment and criminality.
343
What is the unit of consumption?
Unlike the pre-industrial family, the modern family no longer works together, but still consumes together as a single unit or group the income that its members earn
344
Give an example of the unit of consumption
On food, housing and leisure activities.
345
What is unbanisation?
The process of change from a rural society where the majority of the population lives in the countryside to an urban society where most people live in towns and cities.
346
What is validity?
The capacity of a research method to measure what it sets out to measure; a true or genuine picture of what something is really like.
347
Give examples of a method which is seen as being high in validity.
Methods such as participant observation that produce qualitative data are usually seen as high in validity.
348
What is value consensus?
Agreement among society's members about what values are important; a shared culture.
349
What is the functionalist view on the value consensus?
It integrates individuals into society by giving them a sense of solidarity or 'fellow feeling' with others and enables them to agree on goals and cooperate harmoniously.
350
What are values?
Ideas or beliefs about general principles or goals. They tell society's members what is good or important in life and what to aim for, and they underlie more detailed norms of conduct.
351
What do functionalists see shared values as?
Vital in holding society together.
352
What are variables?
Any factor that can change or vary. Sociologists seek to discover correlations between variables e.g between social class and educational achievement. Lab experiments are occasionally used to control variables and measure their effect.
353
Give four examples of variables
Age, gender, occupation and income.
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What is vocational?
Connected to a career. Vocational education and training transmits knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to pursue particular careers.
355
Give two examples of vocational courses.
Courses in IT or hairdressing.
356
What is welfare state?
Where the government or state takes responsibility for people's well being, especially their basic minimum needs.
357
When was today's welfare state (in Britain) created?
In Britain, today's welfare state was created largely in the late 1940s.
358
What does today's welfare state include (in Britain)?
It includes various benefits to provide a minimum income, as well as the NHS, state education and council housing.
