Families and Households Flashcards
Give two examples of patriarchy in the Victorian family.
On marrying, a women’s property became her husbands
Grounds for divorce were very unequal - a man could gain a divorce on the grounds of his wife’s adultery, but a women had to prove her husbands cruelty or another matrimonial offence in addition to adultery.
Define an instrumental role.
The husband has instrumental role, geared towards achieving success at work so that he can provide for the family. He is the breadwinner.
Define an expressive role.
The wife has an expressive role, geared towards primary socialisation of the children and meeting the families emotional needs. She is the homemaker, a full time housewife rather than a wage earner.
According to Parsons, what is the difference between an instrumental and expressive role based on?
Biological differences. Women are ‘naturally’ suited to the nurturing role and men to that of the provider.
Give two criticisms of Parsons.
Young and Willmott (1962) argue that men are now taking a greater share of domestic tasks and more wives are becoming wage earners.
Feminist sociologists reject Parsons’ view that the division of labour is natural. In addition, they argue that it only benefits men.
What is a segregated conjugal role?
Where the couple have separate roles: a male breadwinner and a female homemaker/carer, as in Parsons’ instrumental and expressive roles. Their leisure activities also tend to be separate.
What is a joint conjugal role?
Where the couple share tasks such as housework and childcare and spend their leisure time together.
According to Young and Willmott, which social class is more likely to have segregated conjugal roles?
Traditional working class extended families.
Explain what is meant by the ‘march of progress’ view.
Young and Willmott see family life as improving for all its members, becoming more equal and democratic.
Give three characteristics of a symmetrical family.
- Women now go out to work, although this may be part-time rather than full time.
- Men now help out with housework and childcare.
- Couples now spend their leisure time together instead of separately with workmates or female relatives.
According to Young and Willmott, which couples are most likely to be symmetrical?
Younger couples.
Identify four social changes that have encouraged the rise of the symmetrical family.
- Changes in women’s position, including married women going out to work.
- Geographical mobility (more couples living away from the communities in which they grew up.)
- New technology and labour saving devices
- Higher standards of living.
Why do feminists reject the ‘march of progress’ view?
They argue that little has changed: men and women remain unequal within the family and women still do most of the housework. They see this inequality as stemming from the fact that family and society are male dominated or patriarchal.
How does Oakley criticise Young and Willmott?
She argues their claims are exaggerated.
Social desirability - People may claim to help out more than they do.
What did Boulton find in relation to men’s involvement in childcare?
Fewer than 20% of husbands had a major role in childcare. Men tend to look at tasks, not responsibilities (men take on the ‘less important’ tasks).
Give two examples of sex-typing of tasks.
- Wives were 30 times more likely to be the last person to have done the washing.
- Husbands were four times more likely to be the last person to wash the car.
What is emotion work?
Where someone (usually women) is responsible for managing the emotions and feelings of family members. While at the same time exercising control over their own emotions.
Give three examples of emotion work.
- Handling jealousies and squabbles between siblings.
- Ensuring everyone is kept happy.
What three activities make up the ‘triple shift’?
- Housework
- Paid work
- Emotion work
According to Southerton, why do mothers today face greater difficulties in trying to organise quality time?
‘Achieving quality time is becoming more and more difficult as working mothers find themselves increasingly juggling the demands of work and career, personal leisure time and family, while at the same time managing and coordinating their own and their families’ social activities.’
According to Southerton, how do men’s and women’s leisure time differ?
Men are more likely to experience consolidated ‘blocks’ on uninterrupted leisure time, whereas women’s leisure is often punctuated by child care.
What were Dunne’s two findings about lesbian couples?
- Roles are equal or negotiated based on need
- Both partners jobs are viewed as equally important
How does Dunne explain the difference between lesbian and heterosexual couples?
‘Gender scripts’ are less important in same sex couples.
Which perspective would support Dunne’s explanation?
Radical feminism - ‘Political lesbianism’.
What three points do Barrett and McIntosh make about family resources?
- Men gain far more from women’s domestic work than they give back in financial support.
- The financial support that husbands give to their wives is often unpredictable and comes with ‘strings’ attached.
- Men usually make the decisions about spending on important items.
What are Pahl and Vogler’s two types of control over family income?
The allowance system and pooling.
What is the allowance system?
Where men give their wives an allowance out of which they have to budget to meet the family’s needs, with the man retaining any surplus income to himself.
What is pooling?
Where both partners have access to income and joint responsibility for expenditure; for example, a joint bank account.
Define Edgell’s three types of decisions and who tends to make these.
- Very important decisions: such as those involving finance, a change of job or moving house, were either taken by the husband or taken jointly but with the husband having the final say
- Important decisions: such as those about children’s education or where to go on holiday, were usually taken jointly, and seldom by the wife alone.
- Less important decisions: such as the choice of home decor, children’s clothes or food purchases, were usually made by the wife.
However, Gershuny (2000) - 70% of couples have equal say.
Income and resources are split more evenly - decisions aren’t!
How do feminists explain the differences in decision-making?
In patriarchal society, the cultural definition of men as decision makers is deeply ingrained in men and women and instilled through gender role socialisation.
Give an example of where pooling may not indicate equality.
If a man earns twice as much as his wife, but both put the same amount into the join account, does this count as equality?
Suggest why having separate money may not necessarily mean inequality in a couple.
Evidence suggests that cohabiting couples are more likely than married couples to share domestic tasks equally.
Why may same sex couples have different arrangements from heterosexual couples in relation to money?
Same sex: Gender scripts are different, less importance on money.
Cohabiting: Value independence, ‘co-independence’.
What is domestic violence?
Any incident or pattern of incidents of controlling, coercive or threatening behaviour, violence or abuse between those aged 16 or over who are or have been intimate partners or family members regardless of gender or sexuality.
Why do sociologists reject the view that domestic violence has psychological rather than social causes?
Far too widespread to be work of few disturbed individuals. Doesn’t occur randomly but follow particular social patterns and these patterns have social causes. The most striking of these patterns is that its mainly violence by man against women.
According to Dobash and Dobash, how does marriage legitimate domestic violence?
By conferring power and authority on husbands and dependence on wives. Violent incidents could be set off by what a husband saw as a challenge to his authority, such as his wife asking why he was late home for a meal.
What did Walby and Allen find out about domestic violence?
Women were much more likely to be victims of multiple incidents of abuse and of sexual violence.
What did Ansara and Hindin find out about domestic violence?
Women suffered more severe violence and control, with more serious psychological effects. They also found that women were much more likely than men to be fearful of their partners.
What did Dar point out about domestic violence?
It can also be difficult to count separate domestic violence incidents, because abuse may be continuous (for example living under constant threat), or may occur so often that the victim cannot reliably count the incidences.
Give the two main reasons why official statistics understate the true extent of domestic violence.
- May not be reported (scared of consequences and downplay).
- Police and prosecutors may be reluctant to record, investigate or prosecute those cases that are reported to them (‘family business’ not ‘police business’).
What is the radical feminist view of domestic violence?
Power and control: patriarchy
- Within families, men use treat and violence to oppress, dominate and coerce women.
- This explains why domestic violence is mainly by men against women.
What is the materialist view of domestic violence?
Wilkinson: strain of resources.
- Inequality cause stress (capitalism) which is ‘released indirectly’.
- Fewer resources (money)
- Crowded houses (stress)
- Poverty = reduced social support (beat wives)
Identify three features of childhood in our society.
- Separateness (Pilcher). Childhood is seen as a clear and distinct life stage, and children in or society occupy a separate status from adults.
- Idea of childhood as a ‘golden age’ of happiness and innocence. However, this innocence means that children are seen as vulnerable and in need of protection from the dangers of the adult world.
- There is a belief that children’s lack of skills, knowledge and experience means that they need a lengthy, protected period of nurturing and socialisation before they are ready for adult society and its responsibilities.
Give three differences of how children are treated differently in different societies.
They take responsibility at an early age - Punch’s study in Bolivia. At 5 y/o children are expected to take work responsibilities in the home or community (taken on w/o hesitation or questions).
Less value is placed on children showing obedience to adult authority - Firth found that among the Tikopia of the western Pacific, doing as you are told by a grown up is regarded as a concession to be granted by the child, not a right to be expected by the adult.
Children’s sexual behaviour is often viewed differently - Among the Trobriand Islanders of the south-west Pacific, Malinowski found that adults took an attitude of ‘tolerance and amused interest’ towards children’s sexual explorations and activities.
Explain what is meant by ‘the globalisation of western childhood’.
International humanitarians and welfare agencies have exported and imposed on the rest of the world, western norms of what childhood should be.
For example campaigns against child labour etc reflect western views about how childhood ‘ought’ to be - whereas in fact, such activity by children may be the norm for the culture and an important preparation for adult life
Give two ways in which children were seen to be the same as adults in the Middle Ages.
- Children weren’t seen as having a different ‘nature’ or needs from adults.
- Children were essentially ‘mini-adults. For example, the law made no distinction between children and adults, and children often faced the same severe punishments as those meted out to adults.
How does the painting illustrate Aries’ view of childhood in the Middle Ages?
Children appear without ‘any of the characteristics of childhood: they have simply been depicted on a smaller scale’.
How were parental attitudes to children different in the Middle Ages?
Shorter - high death rates encouraged indifference + neglect, especially towards infants. For example, it wasn’t uncommon for parents to give a newborn baby the name of a recently dead sibling, to refer to the baby as ‘it’, or to forget how many children they had had.
Give three reasons for the emergence of the modern notion of childhood.
- Schools came to specialise purely in the education of the young. Influence of church. Children ‘fragile creatures of God.
- Growing distinction between children’s and adults’ clothing. 17th Century u/c boy would be dressed in ‘an outfit reserved for his own age group, which set him apart from adults’.
- By the 18th century, handbooks on childrearing were widely available.
State one criticism of Aries’ work.
Some sociologists has criticised Aries for arguing that childhood didn’t exist in the past. Pollock argues that it’s more correct to say that in the Middle Ages, society simply had a different notion of childhood from today’s.
State three ways in which Postman argues that childhood is disappearing.
- The disappearance of children’s traditional unsupervised games.
- The growing similarity of children’s and adults’ clothing.
- Cases of children committing ‘adult’ crimes such as murder.
According to Postman, what is the main reason for the disappearance of childhood
The rise and fall of print culture and its replacement by television culture.
Outline how in Postman’s view the information hierarchy has been destroyed.
TV is a source of information to children and this means adults are no longer the ‘gatekeepers’ to information.
Give one criticism of Postman’s view that the information hierarchy has been destroyed.
Children are still children: Adults know more than them and TV isn’t available to everyone.
Childhood is different, not disappearing.
According to Jenks, what is the difference between childhood in modernity and postmodernity?
- Social change has created uncertainty and anxiety.
- Family becomes the only ‘solid’ part of identity, therefore children become more important and protected.
(childhood will become more separate, regulated and protected).
How does Jenks see parents’ relationships with their children in postmodern society?
- Children become more important as a source of adults’ identity and stability.
- They become adults’ last refuge from the constant uncertainty and upheaval of life therefore they become overprotective of their children.
Give two criticisms of Jenks’ work.
- Evidence comes from small, unrepresentative studies.
- Jenks is guilty of over-generalising: he implies that all children are in the same position.
Give three ways in which children’s lives have improved according to the march of progress view.
- Aries and Shorter argue that todays children are more valued, better cared for, protected and educated etc.
- For example, protected by laws against child abuse and child labour.
- Better healthcare and higher standards of living means that babies have a higher chance of surviving.
According to Palmer, what are the causes of ‘toxic childhood’?
She argues that rapid technological and cultural changes in the past 25 years have damaged children’s physical, emotional and intellectual development.
Give examples of childhood health problems that are increasing.
UK youth have above average rates in international league tables for obesity, self harm, drug and alcohol abuse, teen pregnancies etc.
Give the two criticisms that the conflict view makes of the march of progress view.
- There are inequalities among children in terms of the opportunities and risks they face: many today remain unprotected and badly cared for.
- The inequalities between children and adults are greater than ever: children today experience greater control, oppression and dependency, not greater care and protection.
Give an example of the inequalities among children in relation to gender. (conflict view against mop).
According to Hillman, boys are more likely to be allowed to cross or cycle on roads, use buses, and go out after dark unaccompanied.
Give an example of the inequalities among children in relation to ethnicity.
Brannen’s study of 15-16 year olds found that Asian parents were more likely than other parents to be strict towards their daughters.
Give an example of the inequalities among children in relation to social class.
Poor mothers are more likely to have low birth-weight babies, which in turn is linked to delayed physical and intellectual development.
Give an example of each of the following ways in which adults control children:
- Neglect and abuse
- Controls over children’s space.
Neglect and abuse: In 2013, 43,000 children were subject to child protection plans bc they were deemed at risk of harm (mostly bc of their own parents).
Controls over children’s space:
- Fears of road safety and ‘stranger danger’ prevents children travelling independently.
- For example, in 1971, 86% of primary school children were allowed to travel home from school alone. By 2010, this had fallen to 25%.
Give an example of each of the following ways in which adults control children:
- Controls over children’s time
- Controls over children’s bodies
Controls over children’s time: Adults define whether a child is too old or too young for this or that activity, responsibility or behaviour. Contrasts Holmes’ findings among the Samoans.
Controls over children’s bodies: Adults restrict the ways in which children may touch their own bodies. For example, a child may be told not to pick their nose, suck their thumb or play with their genitals. Contrasts with the sexual freedoms of children in cultures such as the Trobriand Islands.
Give an example of the following way in which adults control children:
- Controls over children’s access to resources.
Controls over children’s access to resources:
- Labour laws and compulsory schooling exclude them from all but the most marginal, low-paid, part-time employment.
- Contrast: Katz found that Sudanese children were already engaged in productive work from the age of three or four.
Define age patriarchy.
Age patriarchy is used to describe the inequalities between adults and children.
How might children resist the status of ‘child’?
‘Acting up’ - Acting like adults by doing things that children aren’t supposed to such as swearing, smoking, drinking alcohol etc. Similarly, children may exaggerate their age.
‘Acting down’ - Behaving in ways expected of younger children - is also a popular strategy for resisting adult control.
Hockey and James conclude that modern childhood is a status from which most children want to escape.
Give two criticisms of the child liberationist view
- Some adult control over children’s lives is justified on the grounds that children can’t make rational decisions.
- Although children remain under adult supervision, they aren’t powerless as the child liberationists claim. For example, the 1989 Children Act and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child establish the principle that children have legal rights to be protected and consulted.
What is meant by the idea that children are mere ‘socialisation projects’?
Children are projects for adults to mould, shape and develop, of no interests in themselves, but only for what they will become in the future.
How are children seen by the ‘new sociology of children’?
This approach doesn’t see children as simply ‘adults in the making’. Instead it sees them as active agents who play a major part in creating their own childhoods.
What methods are most appropriate for studying a child’s point of view? Give reasons for your answer.
Informal, unstructured interviews. They empower children to express their own views. This enables sociologists to explore the diverse, multiple childhoods that exist even within a single society.
Define the term ‘value consensus’.
A shared set of norms and values
According to Murdock, what are the four essential functions performed by the family?
- Stable satisfaction of the sex drive: with the same partner, preventing the social disruption caused by a sexual ‘free-for-all’.
- Reproduction of the next generation: without which society couldn’t continue.
- Socialisation of the young: into society’s shared norms and values.
- Meeting its members’ economic needs: such as food and shelter.
Give two criticisms of Murdock’s functionalist view of the family.
- Feminists see the family as serving the needs of men and oppressing women.
- Marxists argue that it meets the needs of capitalism, not those of family members or society as a whole.
Define the nuclear family.
A two-generation family of a man and woman and their dependent children, own or adopted.
Define the extended family.
Three generations living under one roof.
According to Parsons, industrial society needs a geographically and socially mobile workforce. Explain why this is the case.
- Geographically mobile: In modern society, industries constantly spring up and decline in different parts of the country, even different parts of the word and this requires people to move to where the jobs are.
- Socially mobile: Modern industrial society is based on constantly evolving science and technology and so it requires a skilled, technically competent workforce. An individual’s status is achieved by their own efforts and ability not ascribed making social mobility possible.
Explain how the nuclear family meets the needs of industrial society.
- Easier for the nuclear family to move.
- Better fitted to the need that industrial society has for a geographically mobile workforce.
Outline the two criticisms of Parsons.
- According to Young and Willmott, the pre-industrial family was nuclear, not extended, with parents and children working together, for example in cottage industries such as weaving.
- There is partial support for Parsons’ claim that the nuclear family has become to dominant family type today. Young and Willmott argue that, from about 1900, the nuclear family emerged as a result of social changes that made the extended family less important as a source of support.
What two essential or ‘irreducible’ functions does Parsons suggest that the nuclear family now performs?
The primary socialisation of children: to equip them with basic skills and society’s values, to enable them to cooperate with others and begin to integrate them into society.
The stabilisation of adult personalities: the family is a place where adults can relax and release tensions, enabling them to return to the workplace refreshed and ready to meet its demands. This is functional for the efficiency of the economy.
Define the two social classes identified by Marxists. (capitalist + w/c)
The capitalist class who own the means of production. The working class whose labour the capitalists exploit for profit.
According to Marxists, who or what does the family benefit?
The capitalist system/society.
Why did Marx claim there was no family in primitive communism?
.
According to Engels, why is monogamy essential in class society?
Because of the inheritance of private property - men had to be certain of the paternity of their children in order to ensure that their legitimate heirs inherited from them.
According to Engels, what did the rise of the monogamous nuclear family mean for women?
The rise of the monogamous nuclear family represented a ‘world historical defeat of the female sex’. This was because it brought the woman’s sexuality under male control and turned her into ‘a mere instrument for the production of children’.
According to Marxists, why will the overthrow of capitalism mean the end of the patriarchal nuclear family?
There will be no need for the patriarchal family, since there will be no need to have a means of transmitting private property down the generations.
What is the Marxist definition of ideology?
A set of ideas or beliefs that justify inequality and maintain the capitalist system by persuading people to accept it as fair, natural or unchangeable.
Explain two ideological functions of the family.
- Socialising children into the idea that hierarchy and inequality and inequality are inevitable.
- According to Zaretsky, the family also performs an ideological function by offering an apparent ‘haven’ from the harsh and exploitative world of capitalism outside, in which workers can be ‘themselves’ and have a private life.
Identify three ways in which the family is an important market for consumer goods.
- Advertisers urge families to ‘keep up with the Joneses’ by consuming all the latest products.
- The media target children, who use ‘pester power’ to persuade parents to spend more.
- Children who lack the latest clothing or ‘must have’ gadgets are mocked and stigmatised by their peers.
State three criticisms of the Marxist perspective.
- Marxists tend to assume that the nuclear family is dominant in capitalist society ignoring the variety of family structures in society today.
- Feminists: The emphasis on class and capitalism underestimates the importance of gender inequalities in families. The family serves men not capitalism.
- Functionalists: Marxists ignore the very real benefits that the family provides for its members.
What do liberal feminists campaign for and against?
For: Equal rights and opportunities for women (e.g equal pay and an end to discrimination in employment).
Against: Sex discrimination
In what way do liberal feminists agree with ‘march of progress’ theorists? What evidence do they give for this?
Some studies suggest that men are now doing more domestic labour, while the way parents now socialise their sons and daughters is more equal than in the past and they now have similar aspirations for them.
What are liberal feminists criticised by other feminists?
Failing to challenge the underlying causes of women’s oppression and for believing that changes in the law or in people’s attitudes will be enough to bring equality.
According to Marxist feminists, what is the main cause of women’s oppression?
Capitalism, not men.
Identify three ways in which Marxist feminists see women as being oppressed.
Women’s oppression performs several functions for capitalism:
- Women reproduce the labour force.
- Women absorb anger: ‘takers of shit’
- Women are a reserve army of cheap labour.
According to Marxist feminists, how will the oppression of women be overcome?
They see the oppression of women in the family as linked to the exploitation of the w/c. They argue the family must be abolished at the same time as a socialist revolution replaces capitalism with a classless society.
According to radical feminists, what are the two features of the division between men and women in patriarchal society?
Men are the enemy: they’re the source of women’s oppression and exploitation.
The family and marriage are the key institutions: in patriarchal society. Men benefit from women’s unpaid domestic labour and sexual services, and they dominate women through domestic and sexual violence or the threat of it.
Give two solutions that radical feminists propose to overcome women’s oppression.
- Patriarchal system needs to be overturned. Particularly the family. They argue the only way to do this is through separatism (live independently from men).
- ‘Political lesbianism’: hetero relationships are inevitably oppressive ‘sleeping with the enemy’.
Why do liberal feminists criticise radical feminists’ views?
Somerville: radical feminists fail to recognise that women’s position has improved considerably. Also, heterosexual attraction makes separatism unlikely to work.
What is the main argument of difference feminism? Why do other feminists reject this argument?
Argument: We cannot generalise about women’s experiences. Everyone has different experiences of the family.
Reject: Neglects the fact that all women share many of the same experiences e.g all face risk of domestic violence and sexual assault.
Identify two features that functionalist, Marxist and feminist perspectives on the family can be said to share.
- They tend to assume that the traditional nuclear family is the dominant family type.
- They’re all structural theories.
What is the main emphasis of the personal life perspective?
It emphasises the meanings that individual family members hold and how these shape their actions and relationships.
Give five examples of relationships that may give individuals a sense of belonging.
- Relationships with friends: who may be ‘like a brother or sister’ to you.
- Fictive kin: close friends who are treated as relatives.
- Gay and lesbian ‘chosen families’: made up of a supportive network of close friends, ex-partners etc who aren’t related by blood or marriage.
- Relationships with dead relatives: who live on in memories and continue to shape identities and affect actions.
- Relationships with pets: Tipper found children frequently saw pets as ‘part of the family’.
In what ways does the personal life perspective challenge the conventional ‘blood and marriage’ view of family relationships.
.
What problems may be faced by donor-conceived children, their parents and others?
.
Identify one strength of the personal life perspective.
.
State one criticism of the personal life perspective.
.
Identify two ways in which the personal life perspective differs from functionalism.
.
identify the four factors that affect the size of a country’s population.
- Births
- Deaths
- Immigration
- Emigration
Define natural change.
The difference between the number of live births and deaths per year.
Define net migration.
The difference between the numbers of immigrant and the number of emigrants, and is expressed as a net increase or net decrease due to migration.
Define birth rate.
The number of live births per thousand of the population per year.
Define total fertility rate.
The average number of children women will have during their fertile years.
Identify two reasons for changes in the fertility and birth rates.
- More women are remaining childless than in the past.
- Women are postponing having children: average age for giving birth now is 30, and fertility rates for women in their 30s and 40s are increasing. Older women may be less fertile and have fewer fertile years remaining, and so they produce fewer children.
Summarise each of the following reasons for the decline in the birth rate:
- Changes in the position of women.
- Decline in the infant mortality rate.
Changes in the position of women:
- Harper: Better education for women, who prioritise their career over starting a family. E.g In 2012, 1/5 women aged 45 were childless which is double the amount of 25 years earlier.
Decline in the infant mortality rate:
- Due to better knowledge of healthcare, more developed medical treatments that stopped whooping cough etc, better nutrition.
- This lead to an IMR of 4 by 2012, compared to 1900 which had an IMR of 154.
Summarise each of the following reasons for the decline in the birth rate:
- Children are now an economic liability.
- Child centredness.
Children are now an economic liability:
- Laws banning child labour and intro of compulsory schooling meant that children were no longer an economic asset.
- This means parents have less children so they can afford them.
Child centredness:
- As the ‘child identity’ has been socially constructed, parents see ‘quality over quantity’ so they can pay them all special attention.
What is the reason for the slight increase in births since 2001?
The increase of immigration because, on average, mothers from outside the UK have a higher fertility rate than those born in the UK.
What is the effect of fewer babies being born on the family?
Smaller families means that women are more likely to be free to go out to work. However, better off couples may be able to have larger families and still afford childcare that allows them both to work full time.
What is the effect of fewer babies being born on the dependency ratio?
- Reduces ‘burden of dependency’ on working population.
- Fewer young adults and smaller working population may increase burden of dependency.
- Childhood may become a lonelier experience.
- Fewer children could lead to them becoming more valued.
What is the effect of fewer babies being born on public services and policies?
- Fewer services (e.g schools) may be needed.
- Affects cost of maternity and paternity leave and types of housing built.
- An ageing population: more old people relative to young people.
Define death rate.
The number of deaths per thousand of the population per year.
According to Tranter, what was the main reason for the decline in the death rate from 1850 to 1970.
Infection diseases such as: measles, smallpox, TB etc.
By the 1950s, what kinds of diseases had become the main cause of death?
Heart disease and cancer. Mainly affected middle aged and old people than the young.
Summarise each of the following social factors that had an impact on death rates:
- Improved nutrition
- Medical improvements
Improved nutrition:
- McKeown: It accounted for half the reduction in death rate.
- Due to TB because it increased resistance to infection.
Medical improvements: - After the 1950s
- Intro of antibiotics
- NHS (1948)
- Immunisation
Summarise each of the following social factors that had an impact on death rates:
- Smoking and diet
- Public health measures
- Other social changes
Smoking and diet:
- Harper: Smoking reduction.
- However, obesity has replaced it as in 2012 1/4 of adults were obese.
- Deaths from obesity have been kept low due to drug therapy.
Public health measures:
- Improvements in housing.
- Clean Air Act reduced air pollution.
Other social changes:
- Decline of dangerous manual labour such as mining.
- Greater public knowledge of the cause of illnesses.
Define life expectancy.
How long on average a person born in a given year can expect to live.
What is the difference in life expectancy for a baby boy born in 1900 as compared with a baby born in 2013?
- Males born in England in 1900 could expect on average to live until they were 50 (57 for females).
- Males born in England in 2013 can expect to live for 90.7 years (94 for females).
Give one reason why average life expectancy was low in 1900.
So many infants and children didn’t survive beyond the early years of life.
E.g a newborn baby today has a better chance of reaching its 65th birthday than a baby born in 1900 had of reaching its 1st birthday.
What is the projected number of centenarians in 2100?
One million.
Identify three factors that have cause the ageing of the population.
Increasing life expectancy: people are living longer into old age
Declining infant mortality: so that nowadays hardly anyone dies early in life.
Declining fertility: fewer young people are being born in relation to the number of older people in the population.
Summarise the effects of an ageing population on public services.
- Older people consume a larger proportion of services such as health and social care than any other age group. Mainly ‘old old’ (75+).
- Changes to policies and provision of housing, transport or other services.
Summarise the effects of an ageing population on one-person pensioner households.
- The number of pensioners living alone has increased.
- Account for about 12.5% of all households.
Summarise the effects of an ageing population on the dependency ratio.
- Economically dependent group (through taxes - pensions and health care)
- As the number of retired people rises, the dependency ratio rises + burden of working population.
2015: 3.2 people of working age for every one pensioner.
2033: Predicted to fall to 2.8 - Age people can draw pension is rising (from 2020, people have to wait until they’re 66. Rising to 67 from 2026).
Define ageism.
The negative stereotyping and unequal treatment of people on the basis of their age.
In what ways might ageism be seen?
Ageism towards older people shows itself in many ways, such as discrimination in employment and unequal treatment in healthcare.
What is ‘structured dependency’?
The old are largely excluded from paid work, leaving them economically dependent of their families or the state. This dependency is structured.
How do Marxists view old age in capitalist society?
The old are no use to capitalism because they’re no longer productive. As a result, the state is unwilling to support them adequately and so the family has to care for them.
How does age determine people’s role in modern society?
Age becomes important in role allocation, creating fixed life stages and age-related identities, such as worker or pensioner. The old are thus excluded from a role in the labour force and made dependent and powerless.
How does the life course in postmodern society differ from that in modern society?
In today’s postmodern society, the fixed, orderly stages of the life course have broken down.
For example, trends such as children dressing in adult styles begins to blur the boundaries between the life stages. This gives individuals greater choice of lifestyle, whatever their age.
How do people use consumption to create their identities in postmodern society? What does this mean for old people’s identities and ageist stereotypes?
We can now define ourselves by what we consume. We can choose a lifestyle and identity regardless of age. Our age no longer determines who we are or how we live.
As a result, old people become a market for a vast range of ‘body maintenance’ goods and services to create their identities.
The centrality of the media: positive aspects of old age
The emphasis on surface features: Anti-ageing products - able to write different identities for themselves.
How might a person’s previous occupational position affect them when they are older?
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Identify three policy implications of an ageing population.
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Define immigration.
Immigration refers to movement into a society.
Define emigration.
Emigration refers to movement out of a society.
Define net migration.
The difference between the numbers of immigrants and the number of emigrant, and is expressed as a net increase or a net decrease due to migration.
What part of the world do most immigrants to the UK now come from?
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Define the following terms in relation to emigration:
- Economic ‘push’ factors.
- Economic ‘pull’ factors.
Push factors: economic recession and unemployment at home.
Pull factors: higher wages or better opportunities abroad.
Define globalisation.
Globalisation is the idea that barriers between societies are disappearing and people are becoming increasingly interconnected across national boundaries.
What processes are giving rise to globalisation?
- The growth of communication systems and global media
- The creation of global markets.
- The fall of communism in Eastern Europe
- Expansion of the EU.
How does today’s pattern of super-diversity differ from pre-1900s migration patterns?
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In what ways does the feminisation of migration reflect the gender division of labour in western societies?
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List some of the factors that make up our identity.
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What is a ‘hybrid identity’?
Hybrid identity: Identities made up of two or more different sources.
Those with hybrid identities may find that others challenge their identity claims or accuse them of not ‘fitting in’.
What is meant by ‘hierarchial identities’? Use an example to illustrate this.
Eade found that second generation Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain created hierarchical identities: they saw themselves as Muslim first, then Bengali, then British.
What does Eriksen mean by ‘transnational identities’?
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What is meant by ‘assimilationism’? Why might this be a controversial policy?
Assimilationism: 1st state policy approach - immigration. Aimed to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, values and customs of the host culture.
Controversial: Transnational migrants with hybrid identities may not be willing to abandon their culture or to see themselves as belonging to just one nation-state.
What is meant by multiculturalism?
Multiculturalism accepts that migrants may wish to retain a separate cultural identity. However, in practise, this acceptance may be limited to more superficial aspects of cultural diversity e.g shallow and deep diversity.
Why is ‘shallow’ diversity more likely to be accepted than ‘deep’ diversity?
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Why has there been a move back towards assimilationism policies in recent years?
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Why does Castles see assimilationist policies as counter-productive?
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What is stigma?
The negative label, social disapproval or shame attached to a person, action or relationship.
Why has the stigma surrounding divorce decreased?
The fact that divorce is more common begins to normalise it and reduces the stigma attached to it. Today it’s more likely to be regarded as a misfortune rather than shameful.
Define secularisation.
The decline in the influence of religion in society.
Why might secularisation lead to more divorce?
The traditional opposition of the churches to divorce carries less weight in society and people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings when making decisions about personal matters.
Why do couples have higher expectations of marriage today?
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Why are functionalists optimistic about marriage despite higher divorce rates?
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What aspect of rising divorce rates do functionalists fail to explain?
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Give four reasons for women’s increased financial independence today?
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What role does the dual burden play in causing an increased divorced rate?
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According to radical feminists, why are women more likely to file for divorce?
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How does individualism contribute to a higher divorce rate?
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What is the effect of high divorce rate from a new right perspective?
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What is the effect of high divorce rate from a feminist perspective?
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What is the effect of high divorce rate from a postmodernist and individualisation thesis perspective?
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What is the effect of high divorce rate from a functionalist perspective?
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What is the effect of high divorce rate from a functionalist perspective?
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What is the effect of high divorce rate from an interactionist perspective?
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What is the effect of high divorce rate from the personal life perspective?
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Identify four changes in the pattern of marriages in recent years.
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Summarise the following reasons for changes in first marriage:
- Changing attitudes to marriage.
- Secularisation.
- Declining stigma attached to alternatives to marriage.
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Summarise the following reasons for changes in first marriage:
- Changes in the position of women.
- Fear of divorce.
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Why have remarriages increased?
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Why are couples marrying at a later age?
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Give two reasons why couples today may be less likely to get married in church?
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Define cohabitation.
Cohabitation involves an unmarried couple in a sexual relationship living together.
Note four patterns of cohabitation.
- Cohabiting couples with children are a fast-growing family type.
- There are 2.9 million cohabiting heterosexual couples in Britain. About 1 in 8 adults are now cohabiting: double the number in 1996.
- There’s an estimated 69,000 same-sex cohabiting couples.
- About 1/5 of all those cohabiting are ‘serial cohabitants’ who have had 1 or more previous cohabitation’s.
Give four reasons for the increase in cohabitation.
- Increased cohabitation rates are a result of the decline in stigma attached to sex outside marriage. In 1989, only 44% of people agreed that ‘premarital sex isn’t wrong at all’, but 65% took this view by 2012.
- The young are more likely to accept cohabitation.
- Increased career opportunities for women may mean they have less need for the financial security of marriage and are freer to opt for cohabitation.
- Secularisation: young people with no religion are more likely to cohabit than those with a religion.
Identify two different ways in which cohabitation may be seen by couples.
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Identify three rights that are the same for same-sex couples and heterosexual couples.
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Explain what Weeks means by ‘chosen families’.
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According to Weston, how have same-sex relationships changed since the 1970s?
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What has been the impact of legal acceptance on same-sex couples?
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Why might some gay people see legal recognition of same-sex relationships as limiting?
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Note three patterns of one-person households today.
- Big rise in number of people living alone. In 2013, almost 3 in 10 households (7.7 mil people) contained only one person - nearly 3x the figure in 1961.
- 40% of all one-person households are over 65. Pensioner one-person households have doubled since 1961, while those of non-pensioners tripled. Men under 65 were most likely to live alone.
- By 2033, over 30% of the adult population will be single (unpartnered and never-married).
Give two reasons for the increased number of one-person households.
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Give two reasons why couples may choose to live apart.
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Note the three patterns of childbearing today.
- Nearly half (47%) of all children are now born outside marriage: over twice as many as in 1986. However, nearly all these births are jointly registered by both parents. In most cases, the parents are cohabiting.
- Women are having children later: between 1971 and 2012, their average age at the birth of their first child rose by four years to 28.1 years.
- Women are having fewer children than in the 20th century, though the number increased slightly in the early 21st century. The average number of children per woman fell from a peak of 2.95 in 1964 to a record low of 1.63 in 2001, rising to 1.94 in 2010.
Give two reasons for the changes in the pattern of childbearing.
- Reasons for the increase in births outside marriage include a decline in stigma and increase in cohabitation. For example, only 28% of 25-34 y/o now think marriage should come before parenthood.
- The later age at which women are having children, smaller family sizes and the fact that more women are remaining childless, all reflect the fact that women have more options than just motherhood.
Give two reasons for the rise in the number of lone-parent families.
- Increase in divorce and separation
- Increase in the number of never-married women having children.
Give three reasons why lone-parent families tend to be headed by women.
- The widespread belief that women are naturally suited to an ‘expressive’ or nurturing role.
- Divorce courts usually give custody of children to mothers.
- Men may be less willing than women to give up work to care for children.
Give two reasons why some women may be ‘single by choice’?
- They may not wish to cohabit or marry.
- They may have experienced abuse.
What reason does Murray give for the increase in lone-parent families?
The New Right thinker Murray sees the increase as resulting from an overgenerous welfare state providing benefits for unmarried mothers and their children.
What is meant by a ‘perverse incentive’?
Rewarding irresponsible behaviour, such as having children without being able to provide for them.
What is meant by the term ‘dependency culture’?
The welfare state creates a dependency culture where people assume the state will support them and their children.
According to Murray, what is the solution to the dependency culture?
Abolishing welfare benefits. This would reduce the dependency culture that encourages births outside of marriage.
Give four reasons why lone-parent families are likely to be in poverty.
- Lack of affordable childcare prevents lone parents from working: 60% of them are unemployed. This is twice as high among mothers with partners.
- Inadequate welfare benefits.
- Most lone parents are women, who generally earn less than men.
- Failure of fathers to pay maintenance, especially if they have formed a second family that they have to support.
Why are the children in step-families more likely to be from the women’s previous relationship rather than the man’s?
When marriages and cohabitation’s break up, children are more likely to remain with their mother.
Why might step-families face poverty?
There are often more children and because the stepfather may also have to support children from a previous relationship.
What tensions might exist in step-families?
Some tensions faced by step-families may be the result of a lack of clear social norms about how individuals should behave in such families.
Suggest two reasons why black families are more likely to be lone-parent families than families in other ethnic groups.
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Why does Mirza argue that the statistics on lone-parent black families may not reflect the true situation?
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Identify two reasons why Asian households tend to be larger than those of other ethnic groups.
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Summarise the evidence from Charles’ study for the continued existence of the extended family today.
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Summarise the evidence from Willmott’s study for the continued existence of the extended family today.
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Summarise the evidence from Chamberlain’s study for the continued existence of the extended family today.
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Summarise the evidence from Bell’s study for the continued existence of the extended family today.
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Identify two features of the ‘beanpole’ family.
- It’s extended vertically through three or more generations: grandparents, parents and children.
- But it’s not horizontally: it doesn’t involve aunts, uncles, cousins etc.
Which two demographic changes have encouraged the ‘beanpole’ family?
- Increased life expectancy: means more surviving grandparents and great-grandparents.
- Smaller family sizes: mean people have fewer siblings and thus fewer horizontal.
List the order of obligation to help with household tasks that Cheal identifies.
” A systematic set of rules exists for deciding who has the greatest obligation to assist. Help should be given: first, by a spouse; second, by a daughter; third, by a daughter-in-law; fourth, by a son; fifth, by other relatives; and sixth, by non-relatives.”
Which gender is more likely to be chosen as a caregiver?
Female.
Outline what is meant by a ‘modernist’ perspective of the family.
They see modern society as having a fairly fixed, clear-cut and predictable structure. They see one ‘best’ family type - the nuclear family - as slotting into this structure and helping to maintain it by performing certain essential functions.
What are Parsons’ two irreducible functions of the family?
- The primary socialisation of children.
- The stabilisation of adult personalities.
According to functionalists, which type of family is the most appropriate to person Parsons’ two irreducible functions in modern society?
The nuclear family.
Describe the family type that the New Right regard as normal.
The traditional or conventional nuclear family.
What reasons do the New Right give for supporting the type of family that they regard as normal?
They see the nuclear as ‘natural’ and based on fundamental biological differences between men and women.
Give three reasons why the New Right see lone-parent families as harmful to children.
- Lone mothers cannot discipline their children properly.
- Lone-parent families leave boys without an adult male role model, resulting in educational failure, delinquency and social instability.
- Such families are also likely to be poorer and thus a burden on the welfare state and taxpayers.
Summarise Benson’s findings on cohabitation versus marriage. How does this support the New Right view?
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Identify two solutions to family problems proposed by New Right thinkers.
- They argue that only a return to ‘traditional values’, including the value of marriage, can prevent social disintegration and damage to children.
- They regard laws and policies such as easy access to divorce, gay marriage and widespread availability of welfare benefits as undermining the conventional family.
Briefly summarise the five criticisms of the New Right view of the family.
Oakley: NR wrongly assume roles are fixed by biology. She believe the NR view of the family is a negative reaction against the feminist campaign for equality.
Feminists: Conventional nuclear family favoured by NR is based on patriarchal oppression of women and is a fundamental cause of gender inequality. In their view, it prevents women working, keeps them financially dependent on men and denies them an equal say in decision making.
Critics of NR: There’s no evidence that children of lone-parent families are more likely to be delinquent than those brought up in a two-person household of the same social class.
The NR view that marriage equals commitment, while cohabitation doesn’t, has been challenged. Some see cohabitation as temporary, others see it as a permanent alternative to marriage.
Rate of cohabitation is higher among poorer social groups. Therefore, as Smart points out, it may be poverty that causes the breakdown of relationships, rather than the decision not to marry.
What does Chester mean by the neo-conventional family?
Chester defines the neo-conventional family as a dual-earner family in which both spouses go out to work, not just the husband.
What five patterns does Chester identify to show that there has been little change to the modern family?
- Most people live in a household headed by a married couple.
- Most adults marry and have children. Most children are reared by their two natural parents.
- Most marriages continue until death. Divorce has
increased, but most divorcees remarry. - Cohabitation has increased, but for most couples it’s a temporary phase before remarrying. Most couples get married if they have children.
- Although births outside marriage have increased, most are jointly registered, indicating that the parents are committed to bringing up children as a couple.
Identify and briefly describe the Rapoports’ five types of family diversity.
- Organisational diversity: Differences in the way family roles are organised. E.g some couples have joint conjugal roles and two wage-earners, while others have segregated conjugal roles and one wage-earner.
- Cultural diversity: Different cultural, religious and ethnic groups have different family structures. E.g higher proportion of extended families among Asian households.
- Social class diversity: Differences in family structure are partly the result of income differences between households of different social classes.
- Life-stage diversity: Family structures differ according to the stage reached in the life cycle. E.g young newlyweds, couples with dependent children, retired couples whose children have grown up and left home, and widows who are living alone.
- Generational diversity: Older and younger generations have different attitudes and experiences that reflect the historical periods in which they have lived. E.g diff views about divorce and cohabitation.
What are the two key characteristics of postmodern society?
- It gives individuals greater freedom to plot their own life course - to choose the kind of family and personal relationships that meet their needs.
- But greater freedom of choice in relationships means a greater risk of instability, since these relationships are more likely to break up.
According to Stacey, how have women benefited from the greater freedom of postmodern society?
It has enabled them to free themselves from patriarchal oppression and to shape their family arrangements to meet their needs.
What method did Stacey use in her research? (postmodern families)
Interviews
What does Stacey mean by the ‘divorce-extended family’?
Members within are connected by divorce rather than marriage.
How do divorce extended families reflect the postmodernist view of family life?
It illustrates the idea that postmodern families are diverse and that their shape depends on the active choices people make about how to live their lives.
Summarise the individualisation thesis.
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Explain what is meant by the ‘life course analysis’.
A methods of research developed by Hareven. Using in-depth, unstructured interviews, it explores the meanings that individual family members give to the relationships they have and the choices they make at various points in their lives.
What are the two major strengths of using life course analysis to investigate families?
- It focuses on what family members themselves consider important, rather than what sociologists may regard as important. It looks at families and households from the viewpoint of the people involved.
- It’s particularly suitable for studying families in today’s postmodern society, where there’s more choice about personal relationships and more family diversity.
Give the two reasons for greater choice and equality in families and marriage. What does this mean for couples today?
- Contraception has allowed sex and intimacy rather than the reproduction to become the main reason for the relationships existence.
- Women have gained independence as a result of feminism and because of greater opportunities in education and work.
According to Giddens, what holds relationships together today?
Individual choice and equality.
What is the key feature of the ‘pure relationship’?
It exists solely to satisfy each partners needs. Couples stay together for love, happiness or sexual attraction, rather than because of tradition, a sense of duty or for the sake of the children.
Why does Giddens see the pure relationship as a ‘rolling contract’?
It can be ended more or less at will by either partner, rather than a permanent commitment.
Why does Giddens see same-sex couples as pioneers of new family types?
Same-sex relationships aren’t influenced by tradition to the extent that heterosexual couples are. As a result, they have been able to develop relationships based on choice rather than on traditional roles.
What does Beck mean by ‘risk society’?
Risk society: where tradition has less influence and people have more choice. As a result, we’re more aware of risks.
Identify two social trends that have undermined the patriarchal family.
Greater gender equality: which has challenged male domination in all spheres of life. Women now expect equality both at work and in marriage.
Greater individualism: where people actions are influenced more by calculations of their own self-interest than by a sense of obligation to others.
What is the ‘negotiated family’?
They don’t conform to the traditional family norm, but vary according to the wishes and expectations of their members, who decide what is best for themselves by negotiation.
What does Beck mean by the ‘zombie family’?
It appears to be alive, but in reality it’s dead. People want it to be a haven of security in an insecure world, but today’s family cannot provide this because of its own instability.
State three criticisms that the personal life perspective makes of the individualisation thesis.
- It exaggerates how much choice people have about family relationships today. Reflects neoliberal ideology that individuals have complete freedom of choice. in reality traditional norms that limit these choices haven’t weakened.
- Wrongly sees people as disembedded, ‘free-floating’, independent individuals. Ignores that decisions and choices about personal relationships are made within a social context.
- Ignores the importance of structural factors such as social class inequalities and patriarchal gender norms in limiting and shaping our relationship choices.
How does Finch and Mason’s study of extended families support the connectedness thesis?
Although individuals can to some extent negotiate the relationships they want, they’re also embedded within family connections and obligations that restrict their freedom of choice.
Why does the connectedness thesis see Giddens’ view of the pure relationship as incorrect?
Families usually include more than just the couples that Giddens focuses on, and even couple relationships aren’t always ‘pure’ relationships that we can walk away from at will.
Give three examples of gender differences in how far individuals have choices about their relationships.
- After a divorce, gender norms generally dictate that women should have custody of the children, which may limit their opportunity to form new relationships. By contrast, men are freer to start new relationships and second families.
- Men are generally better paid than women and this gives them greater freedom and choice in relationships.
- The relative powerlessness of women and children as compared with men means that many lack freedom to chose and so remain trapped in abusive relationships.
Give an example of how structures continue to limit choice in relationships and families.
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What is China’s one-child policy?
- Women seek permission from workplace to have a child and may be sterilised afterwards.
- Couples with one child get extra benefit such as child healthcare and the ones who don’t have to repay the allowances.
How has the state affected family life in communist Romania?
Restricted abortion/contraception, lowered legal age of marriage to 15 and unmarried adults and childless couples had to pay an extra 5% income tax.
What was the nazi family policy?
- Encouraged ‘racially pure and healthy’ people to breed a ‘master race’.
- Kept women out of work and confined them to ‘children, kitchen, church’.
- The state sterilised 375,000 disabled people whom may have been murdered to concentration camps.
How has the state affected family life in democratic societies?
Britain: The government don’t intervene with the family except when things go wrong. However, social policies still affect the family.
How do functionalists see society?
As a collection of institutions that contribute to each other and to society as a whole,
How do functionalists view the role of policies in relation to the family?
They help it to perform its functions and helps society. E.g child benefit/adoption laws.
What are the two main criticisms of the functionalist view of social policy in relation to the family?
- It doesn’t benefit all members of families.
What is meant by surveillance? (Foucault)
- Observing and monitoring
What is meant by the policing of families?
E.g through doctors/ social workers ‘dealing with cases’.
In what way does Donzelot’s view of the effect of policy on family life differ from the functionalists’ view?
Families don’t ‘benefit’ from state policy.
Describe the roles of the adults in the New Right view of the ‘traditional’ nuclear family. How does their view compare to the functionalists?
Role: To socialise children.
Functionalists: see state policies as ‘helping’ the family however, the New Right see them as undermining the nuclear family.
Give three examples of policies that the New Right see as threatening the conventional family and producing social problems.
- Tax credits, longer maternity leave (new labour)
- Civil partnerships for same-sex couples.
Explain what is meant by the idea that welfare benefits are ‘perverse incentives’.
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Give two examples of ways in which benefits may act as ‘perverse incentives’.
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Explain one way in which taxes might be used to encourage the traditional nuclear family.
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How do the New Right and functionalism differ in their views of the impact of welfare policies on family life?
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Give four criticisms of the New Right view.
- Cutting benefits will increase poverty.
- Patriarchal view
Explain how feminists show that policy creates a self-fulfilling prophecy.
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How do taxes and benefits maintain the patriarchal family?
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How does childcare maintain the patriarchal family?
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How does care for the sick and elderly help maintain the patriarchal family?
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How has the feminist view of social policy been criticised? Give examples of some policies that illustrate the criticism.
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Define the two types of gender regime identified by Drew.
Individualistic - Where policies are based on the belief that husbands and wives should be treated the same. Wives aren’t assumed to be financially dependent on their husbands, so each partner has a separate entitlement to state benefits.
Familistic - Where policies are based on s traditional gender division between male breadwinner and female housewife and carer.
Give one example of a country with an individualistic gender regime and one example of a country with a familistic gender regime.
Individualistic: Sweden
Familistic: Greece
