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MCAT > Kaplan Gen Chem Contd > Flashcards

Kaplan Gen Chem Contd Flashcards

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1
Q

…: the matter that is being observed –> total amount of reactants and products in a chemical rxn

A

system

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2
Q

…/..: everything outside of the system

A

surroundings; environment

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3
Q

systems can be characterized by whether or not they can exchange heat or matter with the surroundings
…: can’t exchange heat/matter with the surroundings
…: system can exchange energy but not matter with the surroundings
…: system can exchange both energy and matter with the surroundings

A

isolated; closed; open

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4
Q

…: when a system experiences a change in one or more of its properties
associated with a change of the … of a system
some are identified by some property that is … throughout the process

A

process; state; constant

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5
Q

first law of thermo

change in internal energy of the system = …

A

Q (heat added); W (work done)

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6
Q

… processes: occur when the system’s temp is constant

constant temp implies that the … is constant throughout the process –> temp and … are directly proportional

A

isothermal; total internal energy; internal energy

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7
Q

isothermal processes appear as a … on a pressure - volume graph –> … is the area under this curve

A

hyperbolic curve; work

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8
Q

… processes: no heat is exchanged between the system and the environment –> … of the system is constant throughout the process

A

adiabatic;

thermal energy

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9
Q

adiabatic processes:
simplifies first law to: …
also … on the P-V graph

A

delta U = - W;

hyperbolic curve

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10
Q

… processes: occur when the pressure of the system is constant
doesnt alter the first law
appears as a … on a P-V graph

A

isobaric; flat line

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11
Q

isothermal and isobaric processes are common bc it is usually easy to control … and …

A

temperature; pressure

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12
Q

… (…) processes: no change in volume –> no … is performed bc the gas neither expands nor compresses

A

isovolumetric; isochoric; work

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13
Q

(isovolumetric processes) first law simplifies to …

… on a P-V graph

A

delta U = Q (change in internal energy is equal to the heat added to the system)
vertical line

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14
Q

… process: one that can occur by itself without having to be driven by energy from an outside source
will not necessarily happen quickly and may not go to completion

A

spontaneous

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15
Q

spontaneous processes:
many have very high … and rarely take place
… selectively enhance the rate of certain spontaneous, slow chemical rxns

A

activation energies;

enzymes

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16
Q

spontaneous processes:
many spontaneous rxns reach … with dynamically stable concs of reactants and products
common method for supplying energy for nonspontaneous rxns by … nonspontaneous rxns to spontaneous ones

A

equilibrium;

coupling

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17
Q

…: macroscopic properties that describe the system in an equilibrium state

A

state functions

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18
Q

state functions cannot describe the … –> how the system got to its current equilibrium
useful for comparing one … state to another

A

process;

equilibrium

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19
Q

state functions:
pathway taken from one equilibrium state to another is described quantitatively by the … functions: most important are … and …

A

process;
work;
heat

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20
Q 
state functions include: 
... 
.. 
... 
... 
... 
... 
... 
...
A 
pressure;
density; 
temperature; 
volume; 
enthalpy; 
internal energy; 
Gibbs free energy; 
entropy
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21
Q

while state functions are independent of the …, they aren’t necessarily independent of one another

A

processes

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22
Q

because systems can be in different equilibrium states at different temperatures and pressures, a set of standard conditions has been defined for measuring enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy changes of a rxn:
… (… degrees C), … pressure, and … concentrations

A

298 K; 25;
1 atm;
1 M

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23
Q

standard conditions are NOT standard temperature and pressure, for which the temp is … (… degrees C)
standard conditions are for …, …, and …
STP is for … calculations

A

273 K; 0;
kinetics; equilibrium; thermodynamics;
ideal gas;

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24
Q

under standard conditions, the most stable form of a substance is called the … of that substance:
standard enthalpy, standard entropy, and standard free energy

A

standard state

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25
Q

…: graphs that show the standard and nonstandard states of matter for a given substance in an … system, as determined by temps and pressures

A

phase diagrams; isolated

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26
Q

phase changes are …, and an … fo phases will eventually be reached at any given combo of temp and pressure

A

reversible; equilibrium

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27
Q

phase equilibria are analogous to the dynamic equilibria of …: concs of reactants and products are … because the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are …

A

reversible chemical rxns; constant; equal;

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28
Q

the temperature of any substance in any phase is related to the … of the molecules that make up the substance

A

average KE

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29
Q

in the liquid phase, molecules are relatively free to move around and some of the molecules near the surface may have enough KE to leave the liquid phase and escape into the gaseous phase –> …/…
each time the liquid loses a high-E particle, the temperature of the remaining liquid …
evaporation is an … process for which the heat source is the …

A

evaporation/vaporization;
decreases;
endothermic;
liquid

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30
Q

boiling: specific type of vaporization that occurs only under certain conditions –> rapid bubbling of the entire liquid with rapid release of the liquid as …
only occurs .. the boiling point and involves vaporization through the entire .. of the liquid

A

gas particles;
above;
volume

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31
Q

in a covered container, the escaping molecules are trapped above the solution and some are formed back into the liquid phase –> …
facilitated by … temps or … pressures

A

condensation;

lower; higher

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32
Q

condensation:
… acts on a liquid in a manner similar to that of an actual physical lid
evaporation and condensation can come into

A

atmospheric pressure;

equilibrium

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33
Q

condensation:
pressure that the gas exerts over the liquid at equilibrium is the … of the liquid
… as temp increases because more molecules have sufficient … to enter the gas phase

A

vapor pressure;
increases;
KE

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34
Q

boiling point: temp at which the … of the liquid equals the …

A

vapor pressure; ambient pressure

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35
Q

availability of energy microstates increases as the temperature of the solid increases –> the molecules have greater … and energy …
if enough energy is absorbed, the 3D structure will break down and the atoms will escape into the liquid phase

A

mobile freedom; disperses

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36
Q

…/…: transition from solid to liquid

melting point

A

fusion/melting:

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37
Q

…/…/…: from liquid to solid

freezing point

A

solidification; crystallization; freezing

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38
Q

… solids have distinct precise melting points

A

crystalline

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39
Q

… solids (glass, plastic, chocolate, candle wax, etc) tend to melt or solidify over a larger range of temps because they have … molecular structures

A

amorphous;

less ordered

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40
Q

…: solid goes directly into gas phase

A

sublimation

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41
Q

…: gaseous to solid phase

a device known as a cold finger can cause things to sublime

A

deposition

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42
Q

phase diagrams: show the temps and pressures at which a substance will be … in a particular phase

A

thermodynamically stable

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43
Q

lines on a phase diagram: lines of …/…

indicate the … and … values for the equilibria between phases

A

lines of equilibrium; phase boundaries;

temp; pressure

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44
Q

lines on a phase diagram:

divide the diagram into three regions corresponding to the … and they themselves represent the …

A

three phases;

phase transformations

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45
Q

in general, gas is found at … temps and .. pressures, the solid phase is found at … temperatures and … pressures, and the liquid phase is found at … temps and … pressures

A

high; low;
low; high;
moderate; moderate

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46
Q

point on phase diagram at which all three phase boundaries meet is the …

A

triple point

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47
Q

phase boundary between the liquid and gas phases terminates at the … –> temperature and pressure above which there is no distinction between the phases

A

critical point

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48
Q

…: densities of gas and liquid become equal and there is no distinction between the two phases
heat of vaporization at this point and at all temps and pressures above the critical point is …

A

supercritical fluids;

zero

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49
Q

temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance –> the way we scale how hot or cold something is
average KE of the particles in a substance is related to the … (…) of the substance

A

thermal energy; enthalpy

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50
Q

most we can say about temperature is that when a substance’s thermal energy increases, its temperature…
cannot say that something that is hot necessarily has a greater thermal energy than something that is cold –> because there is some dependency on …

A

also increases;

how much substance is present

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51
Q

there is a finite limit to temperature below which nothing can exist –> no temperature below … because at this point, the system would be unable to lose any more heat energy –> …

A

0 K; absolute zero

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52
Q

..: transfer of energy from one substance to another as a result of their differences in temperature

A

heat

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53
Q

zeroth law of thermodynamics: implies that objects are in thermal equilibrium only when their … are equal –> heat is a … function: can quantify how much thermal E is transferred between two or more objects due tot heir differences in temps by measuring heat …

A

temperatures;
process;
transferred

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54
Q

processes in which the system absorbs heat –> … (delta Q …)
processes in which the system releases heat –> … (delta Q …)

A

endothermic; > 0

exothermic; < 0

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55
Q

unit of heat is the … or … ( 1 cal = … J)

A

joule; calorie;

4.184

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56
Q

enthalpy: equivalent to … under …

A

heat (Q); constant pressure

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57
Q

when substances of different temps are brought into thermal contact with one another, energy will move from the … to the … substance

A

warmer; cooler

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58
Q

…: process of measuring transferred heat –> … and …

A

calorimetry;
constant-pressure calorimetry;
constant-volume calorimetry

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59
Q

calorimetry:
heat absorbed/released is calculated by: q = …
c is …

A

mc*delta T

specific heat

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60
Q

specific heat: the amount of energy required to raise the temp of …. of a substance by …
specific heat of liquid water = …

A

one gram; one degree C

1 cal/g*K

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61
Q

heat capacities: the product of …

A

mass * specific heat

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62
Q

constant-pressure calorimeter: insulated container covered with a lid with a solution in which a rxn or some physical process is occurring:
… (…) remains constant and the temp can be measured as the reaction progresses
should be sufficient …

A

incident pressure; atmospheric pressure;

thermal insulation

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63
Q

… calorimeter/… vessel –> constant-volume calorimetry:

no … is done

A

bomb; decomposition;

work

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64
Q

constant-volume calorimetry
whole calorimeter can be considered … –> delta U system = …
Q system = …

A

isolated;

  • delta U surroundings;
  • qsurroundings
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65
Q

when a compound is heated, the temp rises until the melting/boiling point is reached and then remain … as the compound is being converted into the next phase. once that new phase is reached, temps start rising again
phase change reactions do not undergo changes in temp, so q equation can’t be used for these
the added heat is absorbed by the compound of interest as energy to overcome the … between the molecules

A

constant;

attractive forces

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66
Q

when transitioning at the solid-liquid boundary, the .. .must be used to determine the heat transferred during the phase change –> change in energy will be … because heat must be added, opposite is true from liquid to solid

A

enthalpy of fusion;

positive

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67
Q

at the liquid gas boundary, … must be used

A

enthalpy of vaporization

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68
Q

Q = … (phase change equation)

A

mL

L is latent heat

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69
Q

total amount of heat needed to cross multiple phase boundaries is just the … of the individual phases being crossed

A

sum

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70
Q

enthalpy is used to express heat changes at … –> … function
change in enthalpy is equal to the heat transferred into or out of the system at …
positive change in enthalpy is …

A

constant pressure; state;
constant pressure;
endothermic

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71
Q

standard enthalpy of formation of a compound is the enthalpy required to produce … of a compound from its elements in their …
o ΔHf (with degree symbol) of an element in its standard state is …

A

one mole;
standard states;
zero

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72
Q

standard enthalpy of a reaction, ΔHrxn (with degree symbol): enthalpy change accompanying a … being carried out under …

A

reaction; standard conditions

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73
Q

∆Hrxn°= …

A

ΣΔHf,products°- ΣΔHf,reactants°

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74
Q

enthalpy is a property of the

A

equilibrium state

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75
Q

hess’s law: enthalpy changes of reactions are

A

additive

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76
Q

enthalpy change for the phase change is called the heat of …
for a phase change rxn, as long as the initial and final states exist at the standard conditions, the … will always equal the …, irrespective of the pathway the process takes

A

heat of vaporization ;
delta H rxn;
delta H vap

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77
Q

state functions are always …

A

path independent

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78
Q

Hess’s law applies to any …, including entropy and Gibbs free energy

A

state function

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79
Q

hess’s law can be expressed in terms of …/… energies –> average E that is required to break a particular type of bond between atoms in the gas phase

A

bond enthalpies;

bond dissociation energies

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80
Q

hess’s law with bond dissociation energies:
units: …
averages of the … for the same bond in many different compounds

A

kJ/mol of bonds broken;

bond energies

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81
Q

hess’s law with bond dissociation energies:

∆Hrxn°=…

A

ΣΔHbonds broken- ΣΔHbonds formed=total energy absorbed-total energy released

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82
Q

…: enthalpy change associated with combustion of a fuel

A

standard heat of combustion ∆Hcom°

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83
Q

second law of thermodynamics: energy spontaneously disperses from being localized to becoming … if it isn’t hindered from doing so

A

spread out

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84
Q

…: measure of the spontaneous dispersal of energy at a specific temperature –> how much energy is spread out or how widely spread out energy becomes in a process

A

entropy

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85
Q

entropy:
delta S = …
Qrev is heat …/… in a reversible process
units: …

A

Qrev/T;
gained; lost;
J/mol*K

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86
Q

entropy:
when energy is distributed into a system at a given T, entropy …
when energy is distributed out of a system at a given temp, entropy …
work must usually be done to … energy

A

increases;
decreases;
concentrate

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87
Q

delta S of universe =

A

delta S of system + delta S of surroundings > 0

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88
Q

entropy is a … function and is pathway …

A

state; independent

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89
Q

standard entropy change for a reaction:

∆Srxn°= …

A

ΣΔSf,products°- ΣΔSf,reactants°

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90
Q

change in Gibbs free energy is a measure of change in … and change in … as a system undergoes a process
the change in free energy is the max amount of energy released by a process that is available to …

A

enthalpy; entropy;

perform useful work

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91
Q

o ΔG = …

A

ΔH – TΔS

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92
Q

movement toward the equilibrium position is associated with a … in Gibbs free energy –> spontaneous
opposite is true

A

decrease

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93
Q

if Gibbs free energy is zero, the system is in a state of … and delta H = …

A

equilibrium;

T * delta S

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94
Q

for an equilbrium between a gas and a solid

A

G (g) = G (s)

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95
Q

phase changes are … dependent processes

A

temperature

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96
Q

for a period of time after a reaction begins, the major product will be the one that is produced more quickly as a result of its … –> … control
after sufficient time, assuming the reaction is reversible, the … product will dominate due to its lower …

A

lower activation energy; kinetic;

thermodynamic; energy value

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97
Q

for standard free energy determinations the concentrations of any solutions are …

A

1 M

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98
Q
  • …: free energy change that occurs when 1 mole of a compound in its standard state is produced from its respective elements in their standard states under standard conditions
    o Standard free energy of formation for any element under standard state conditions is …
A

Standard free energy of formation of a compound; 0

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99
Q

standard free energy of a reaction is the free energy change that occurs when that rxn is carried out under standard state conditions:
∆Grxn°= …

A

ΣΔGf,products°- ΣΔGf,reactants°

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100
Q

∆Grxn°= …

greater the value of Keq, the more … the value of the natural log –> more … free energy change –> more … rxn

A

-RTlnKeq;
positive;
negative;
spontaneous

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101
Q

once a reaction begins, the standard state conditions (specifically the …) no longer apply
value of equilibrium constant must be replaced with another number reflective of where the reaction is in its path toward equilibrium

A

1 M solutions

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102
Q

delta g for a rxn in progress:

∆G_rxn=…

A

∆G°rxn+RTlnQ=RTln Q/K_eq

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103
Q

delta g for a rxn in progress:
if the ratio of Q/Keq is less than one, the natural log will be … and the free energy change will be … so the reaction will …
if its greater than one, the natural log will be … and it will proceed spontaneously in the … until equilibrium is reached
if the ratio = 1, the reaction is at equilibrium and free energy change is …

A 
negative; 
negative;' 
spontaneously proceed forward; 
positive; 
reverse direction; 
0
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104
Q

… are fluids whose properties tend to be similar regardless of chemical identity

A

gases

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105
Q

the state of a gas can be defined by …, …, …, and …

A

pressure;
volume
temperature;
moles (n)

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106
Q

pressure is usually expressed in … or …, or …
the SI unit is …:
1 atm = … mmHg = …. torr = … kPa

A 
atmospheres; millimeters of mercury; torr; 
pascals; 
760; 
760; 
101.325
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107
Q

many medical devices use the same conceptual design of a barometer to continually monitor blood pressure:
atmospheric pressure creates a downward force on the pool of mercury at the base of the barometer and the mercury in the column exerts an opposing force based on its …
when external air exerts a greater force than the weight of the mercury in the column, the column … when the external air exerts a lower force than the weight of the mercury, the column …

A

density;
rises;
falls

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108
Q

many medical devices use the same conceptual design of a barometer to continually monitor blood pressure:
height of the column is thus proportional to the … being applied
it’s not only atmospheric pressure that can exert this force (a clinical BP cuff can act in a similar manner)

A

atmospheric pressure

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109
Q

many processes involving gases take place under standard temp and pressure (STP):
… and …
NOT STANDARD STATE CONDITIONS

A

237 K; 1 atm

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110
Q

ideal gas: hypothetical gas with molecules that have no … and occupy …
real gases deviate from this behavior at high … (low …) and low …, but many compressed real gases have behaviors close to ideal

A

intermolecular forces; no volume;
pressures; V;
temperatures

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111
Q

ideal gas law:
…
useful also for determinations of gas density and molar mass

A

PV = nRT

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112
Q

R is the ideal gas constant: … or …

A

8.21 * 10-2 Latm/molK or 8.314 J/K*mol

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113
Q

density: ratio of mass per unit volume of a substance –> for gases the units are …
PV = nRT where n = m(mass)/M (molar mass) –> density = m/V = ….

A

g/L;

PM/RT

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114
Q

a mole of an ideal gas at STP occupies … L

A

22.4

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115
Q

combined gas law:
… = …
assumes that the number of moles remains constant

A

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

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116
Q

molar mass of a gas–> M =

A

(ρ¬stp)(22.4 L/mol)

the first term is the density of the gas at STP

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117
Q

avogadro’s principle: all gases at a constant temp and pressure occupy volumes that are directly proportional to the … present:
… = … or … = …

A

number of moles of gas;
n/V = k;
n1/V1 = n2/V2

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118
Q

avogadro’s principle:

as the number of moles of gas increases, the volume … in direct proportion

A

increases

119
Q

Boyle’s law: for a given gaseous sample at constant temperature, the volume of the gas is inversely proportional to its …:
… or … = …

A

pressure;
PV = k;
P1V1 = P2V2

120
Q

Charles’s Law: at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is proportional to its …:
… or …
when V = 0, …

A

absolute temperature in Kelvins;
V/T = k; V1T1 = V2T2;
T = 0

121
Q

Gay-Lussac’s Law:

… or …

A

P/T = k; P1/T1 = P2/T2

122
Q

when two or more gases that do not chemically interact are found in one vessel, they will behave … of one another
the pressures of each individual gas are the …

A

independently; partial pressures

123
Q

dalton’s law of partial pressures: total pressure of a gaseous mixture is the … of the partial pressures of the individual components:
PT = PA + PB …

A

sum

124
Q

a gas’s partial pressure is related to its … (..):

PA =

A

mole fraction; X;

XAPT –> XA = moles of gas A/total moles of gas

125
Q

at various applied pressures, the concentration of a gas in a liquid increased/decreased –> characteristic of a gas’s …: pressure exerted by evaporated particles above the surface of a liquid

A

vapor pressure

126
Q

vapor pressure from the evaporated molecules forces some of the gas back into the liquid phase and equilibrium is reached between … and …

A

evaporation; condensation

127
Q

Henry’s Law:
[A] = … or …
kH is henry’s constant and is dependent on the gas’s …

A

kH * PA;
[A]1/P1 = [A]2/P2 = kH;
identity

128
Q

henry’s law: ‘

… (…) and … are directly related

A

solubility; concentration; pressure

129
Q

… theory explains the behavior of gases

describes ideal gases

A

kinetic molecular theory

130
Q

assumptions made in kinetic molecular theory:
gases are made up of particles with volumes that are … compared to container volume
gas atoms/molecules have no …

A

negligible;

intermolecular attraction/repulsion

131
Q

assumptions made in kinetic molecular theory:
gas particles are in …, … motion, colliding with other particles and container walls
collisions between any two gas particles are … –> conservation of both … and …

A

continuous; random;

elastic; momenum; KE

132
Q

assumptions made in kinetic molecular theory:

average KE of gas particles is proportional to the … and is the … for all gases at a given temperature

A

absolute temperature in K; same

133
Q

KE of a gas particle = …

Kb is the Boltzmann constant = …

A

3/2kbT

1.38 * 10^-23 J/K

134
Q

speed of an individual gas particle is nearly impossible to define
speeds of gases are defined terms of …

A

average molecular speed

135
Q

root-mean-square speed (urms) =

A

√(3RT/M)

136
Q

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve shows the distribution of … at a given temperature
bell shaped curve flattens and shifts to … as temp increases, indicating that more molecules are moving at higher speeds

A

gas particle speeds; ‘

right

137
Q

…: movement of molecules from high conc to low conc through a medium

A

diffusion

138
Q

heavier gases diffuse more slowly than light ones bc they will have differing average speeds –> since all gas particles have the same average KE at the same temp, particles with greater … travel at slower average speeds

A

mass

139
Q

Graham’s law: the rates at which two gases diffuse are inversely proportional to the … of their … (r1 and r2 are rates of diffusion):
r1/r2 =

A

square roots; molar masses;

√(M_2/M_1 )

140
Q

…: flow of gas particles under pressure from one compartment to another through a small opening
for two gases at the same temperature the rats of this are proportional to the … –> same relationship as for diffusion

A

effusion; ‘

average speeds

141
Q

as the pressure of a gas increases, the … pressure is approached and … become increasingly substantial, until the gas condenses into a liquid

A

condensation;

intermolecular attraction forces

142
Q

at moderately high pressure, a gas’s V is … than would be predicted by the ideal gas law due to …

A

less; intermolecular attraction

143
Q

at extremely high pressures, the size of the particles becomes large relative to the … between them and the gas takes up a larger volume than would be predicted by ideal gas law:
ideal gas law assumes that a gas can be compressed to take up zero volume, but this is not true

A

distance

144
Q

at lower temps, the average speed of gas molecules … and … become more significant

A

decreases; attractive intermolecular forces

145
Q

as the temp of a gas is reduced toward its condensation pt (…), intermolecular attractions cause the gas to have a … volume than would be predicted by ideal gas law, but at extremely low temps, gases occupy more space than predicted because they cannot be compressed to zero volume

A

boiling; smaller

146
Q

Van der Waals equation attempts to correct for deviations from ideal state:
equation: …
A term corrects for the … between molecules –> smaller for small and less … gases and largest for polar molecules
b term corrects for the … of the molecules themselves

A

(P+ (n^2 a)/V^2 )(V-nb)=nRT
attractive forces;
polarizable;
volume

147
Q

solutions are … mixtures of two or more substances that combine to form a single phase

A

homogenous

148
Q

all solutions are … but not all mixtures are solutions

A

mixtures

149
Q

…: what is dissolved
…: component of the solution that remains in the same phase after mixing or the component present in greater quantity –> the dissolving medium

A

solute;

solvent

150
Q

…: electrostatic interaction between solute and solvent molecules, aka …

A

solvation; dissolution

151
Q

… is when water is the solvent

A

hydration

152
Q

solvation:
breaking intermolecular interactions between solute-solute and solvent-solvent and forming intermolecular interactions between …
… when new interactions are stronger than old ones

A

solute-solvent;

exothermic

153
Q

solvation:
dissolution of gases into liquids is …
most dissolutions are …
when the strength of new interactions is almost equal to that of the original interactions the overall enthalpy change is about … –> formation of an …

A

exothermic;
endothermic;
0;
ideal solution

154
Q

entropy always … upon dissolution

A

increases

155
Q

entropy can be considered the number of … available to a system at a given temp

A

energy microstates

156
Q

…: the max amount of that substance that can be dissolved in a particular solvent at a given temp

A

solubility

157
Q

…: when maximum amount of solute has been added –> dissolved and undissolved solute states are in …
if more solute is added beyond this point, it won’t dissolve

A

saturated solution;

equilibrium

158
Q

…: proportion of solute to solvent is small

a solution where this proportion is large is …

A

dilute;

concentrated

159
Q

generally, solutes are considered soluble if they have a molar solubility above … in solution

A

0.1 M

160
Q

…: solutes that dissolve minimally in the solvent –> molar solubility ..

A

sparingly soluble salts;

< 0.1 M

161
Q

… solution: solute is water

A

aqueous

162
Q

(seven general solubility rules for aqueous solutions) all salts containing … and … cations are water-soluble

A

ammonium; alkali metal cations

163
Q

(seven general solubility rules for aqueous solutions) ALL SALTS CONTAINING … and … anions are water-soluble

A

nitrate; acetate

164
Q

(seven general solubility rules for aqueous solutions)

…, except for …, are water-soluble, except for when they are formed with …, …, and …

A

halides; fluorides;

Ag+ ; Pb2+; Hg22+

165
Q

(seven general solubility rules for aqueous solutions) all salts of the … ion are water soluble (…), except for those formed with …, …, …, and …

A

sulfate; SO4 2-;
Ca2+; Sr2+;
Ba2+; Pb2+

166
Q

(seven general solubility rules for aqueous solutions) all … are insoluble except for those formed with …, …, …, …, and …, which hydrolyze to form solutions of the corresponding …

A 
metal oxides; 
alkali metals; 
ammonium; 
CaO; 
SrO; 
BaO; 
metal hydroxides
167
Q

(seven general solubility rules for aqueous solutions)

all … are insoluble except for those formed with …, …, …, …, and …

A 
alkali metals 
ammonium; 
Ca2+; 
Sr2+' 
Ba2+
168
Q

(seven general solubility rules for aqueous solutions) all .. (…),
… (….)
… (…)
and … (…)
are insoluble , except for those formed with the … and …

A 
carbonates; CO32-; 
phosphates; PO4 3-; 
sulfides; S2-; 
sulfites; SO3 2- 
alkali metals; ammonium
169
Q

… compound: a molecule in which a cation is bonded to at least one electron donor

A

complex ion/ coordination compound

170
Q

complex ion/coordination compound:
…: electron pair donor molecules
… rxn

A

ligands;

complexation

171
Q

complexes are held together with … bonds –> an electron pair donor and electron pair acceptor form very stable … adducts
important in … including proteins

A

coordinate covalent;
Lewis acid-base;
macromolecules

172
Q

..: in some complexes, the central cation can be bonded to the same ligand in multiple places
tends to require … ligands

A

chelation;

large organic

173
Q

…: the amount of solute dissolve din a solvent

A

concentration

174
Q

percent composition by mass: … * 100%

A

mass of solute/mass of solution

175
Q 
mole fraction (X) = .../... 
sum of mole fractions in a system will always be ...
A

moles of A; total moles of all species;

1

176
Q

molarity (M): …

A

mol of solute/ liter of solution

177
Q

molality (italicized m): …/…
for dilute aqueous solutions at 25 degrees C, the molality is almost equal to … because density of water at this temperature is …
important for boiling pt elevation and freezing point depression

A

moles of solute/kg of solvent;
molarity;
1 kg/L

178
Q

normality of a solution is equal to the number of … of interest per … of solution

A

equivalents;

liter

179
Q

an equivalent is a measure of the … of a molecule

A

reactive capacity

180
Q

relationship between molarity and volume:

A

MiVi = MfVf

181
Q

…: equilibrium in the process of creating a solution, where the solute concentration is at its pax value for the given temp and pressure

A

saturation point

182
Q

at saturation, equilbirium is established between … of the solute and … of the solute

A

dissolution;

precipitation

183
Q

for a saturated solution of an ionic compound with the formula AmBn ⇌ mAn+ + nBm-
the equilbrium constant for its solubility in aqueous solution (the solubility product constant, Ksp), can be expressed by:
Ksp = …
Ksps never have denominators because dissociation rxns by definition have a solid salt as a reactant, and … and … do not appear in the equilibrium constant

A

= [An+]m[Bm-]n;

solids; liquids

184
Q

solubility product constants are … dependent. for gases dissolved into a liquid it will also depend on …

A

temperature; pressure

185
Q

… (IP): analogous to reaction quotient, Q, for other chemical rxns –> has same formula as Ksp can be used to show where the solution is with respect to the …

A

ion product;

equilibrium position

186
Q

ion product:
IP < Ksp –> .., … is favored over …
IP = Ksp –> …; solution at …
IP > Ksp –> …, … is favored over ….

A

unsaturated; dissolution; precipitation;
saturated; equilibrium;
supersaturated; precipitation; dissolution

187
Q

…: molarity of a solute in a saturated solution

A

molar solubility

188
Q

formation of complex ions increases the … of a salt in solution
have very high … values

A

solubility;

Ksp

189
Q

every sparingly soluble salt of general formula MX will have Ksp = …, where x is the molar solubility, formula MX2 will have Ksp = …, formula MX3 will have Ksp = … –> assuming no common ion effect

A

x^2;
4x^3;
27x^4

190
Q

Kf –> …/… constant of complex ion in solution

A

formation; stability

191
Q

the initial … is the rate-limiting step of complex ion formation

A

dissolution of the metal ion

192
Q

solubility of a salt is reduced when it is dissolved in a solution that already contains one of its … as compared to tis solubility in a pure solvent –> …

A

constituent ions;

common ion effect

193
Q

presence of common ion has no effect on the … itself

A

solubility product constant

194
Q

…: physical properties of solutions that are dependent on the concentration of dissolved particles but not on their chemical identity

A

colligative properties

195
Q 
colligative properties: 
... 
... 
... 
...
usually associated with ... solutions
A 
vapor pressure depression; 
boiling point elevation; '
freezing point depression; 
osmotic pressure; 
dilute
196
Q

Raoult’s law accounts for vapor pressure depression:
as solute is added to a solvent, the vapor pressure of the solvent … –> presence of the solute molecules can block the … of solvent molecules but not their …, …

A

decreases proportionally;
evaporation;
condensation;
vapor pressure

197
Q

Raoult’s law:
Pa = …
PA° is the vapor pressure in its … state

A

XAPA°;

pure

198
Q

Raoult’s law:
this law holds true only when the attraction between the molecules of the different components of the mixture is equal to the attraction between the molecules of … –> solutions that obey Raoult’s law are …

A

any one component in its pure state;

ideal solutions

199
Q

vapor pressure depression means that a …. is required to match atmospheric pressure, thereby raising the …

A

higher temperature; boiling point

200
Q

vapor pressure depression:
the extent to which the boiling point is raised relative to the pure solvent: …. –>
i is the … factor, Kb is a proportionality constant characteristic of a particular solvent, and m is the molality of the solution

A

T_b=iK_b m;

van’t Hoff factor

201
Q

the presence of solute particles in a solution interferes with the formation of the … of solvent molecules associated with the solid state –> more E must be … in order for the solution to solidify:
…

A

lattice arrangement;
removed;
∆T_f=iK_f m

202
Q

osmotic pressure refers to a “sucking” pressure generated by solutions in which … is drawn into a solution:
equation: …
water moves in the direction of … concentration

A

water;
Π=iMRT
higher solute;

203
Q

…: dissociates to form excess of H+ in solution

A

arrhenius acid

204
Q

…: dissociates to form excess of OH- in solution

A

arrhenius base

205
Q

arrhenius acids and bases are limited to those that are …

A

aqueous

206
Q

Bronsted-Lowry acid donates … and Bronsted base …

not limited to … solutions

A

protons;
accepts protons;
aquous

207
Q

only difference between arrhenius and bronsted acids is that arrhenius requires an … medium and, in arrhenius definition, … is not acidic because it doesn’t produce excess protons in solution, but it is acidic according to Bronsted

A

aqueous;

water

208
Q

…: accept electron pair

…: donate electron pair

A

lewis acids;

lewis bases

209
Q

lewis acid-base chemistry can be called … formation, … formation, or … interactions

A

coordinate covalent bond; complex ion; nucleophile-electrophile

210
Q

lewis acids are often used as …

A

catalysts

211
Q

… species: reacts like an acid in a basic environment and like a base in an acidic environment

A

amphoteric

212
Q

amphoteric species:
in bronsted sense, amphoteric species can either gain or lose a proton, making it …
partially dissociated conjugate base of a … is usually amphoteric
… of some metals (e.g. Al, Zn, Pb, and Cr) are also amphoteric

A

amphiprotic;
polyvalent acid;
hydroxides

213
Q

species that can act as both … and … agents are often considered amphoteric bc they can act as … and …

A

oxidizing; reducing;

Lewis acids; bases

214
Q

acids formed from anions with the ending -ide have the prefix … and the ending …

A

hydro-; -ic

215
Q

acids formed from oxyanions are …
if the anion ends in -ite, the acid will end with …
if the anion ends in -ate the acid will end with …

A

oxyacids;

  • ous acid;
  • ic acid
216
Q

water can react with itself in an … rxn in which hydronium and hydroxide is produced

A

endothermic autoionization

217
Q

autoionization of water is a … rxn

water dissociation constant: Kw = …

A

reversible;

[H3O+][OH-] = 10-14 at 298

218
Q

each mol of water that autoionizes produces one mole of … and … so the concs of these are always equal in pure water at equilibrium. the concs of each of the ions in pure water at equilibrium at 298 K is … M

A

hydrogen ions; hydroxide ions;

10^-7

219
Q

the product of the concentrations of the hydrogen ions and the hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution at 298 K must always equal …

A

10^-14

220
Q 
pH = ... = ... 
pOH = ... = ...
A
  • log[H+] = log(1/[H+]);

- log[OH-] = log(1/[OH-])

221
Q

…: the negative logarithm of the number of items

A

p scale;

222
Q

pH + pOH = … for all aqueous solutions at 298 K

A

14

223
Q

if the nonlogarithmic value is written in proper scientific notation, it will be in the form …, where n is a number between 1 and 10. taking the negative log and simplifying the p value will be:
– log (n * 10-m) = -log(n) – log (10-m) = …
Because n is between 1 and 10, the log will be a decimal between … and .., and the closer n is to 1 the closer the log will be to …
the closer n is to 10 the closer the log will be to …
P is approximately …

A 
n * 10^-m; 
m – log(n); 
0; 1; 
0; 
n; 
m - 0.n
224
Q

strong acids and bases dissociate … in solution:

if the conc of acid/base is close to 10^-7 M, then the contribution from the … is important

A

completely;

autoionization of water

225
Q 
some strong acids to remember: 
... 
... 
... 
... (...) 
... (...) 
... (...)
A 
HCl; 
HBr; 
HI; 
H2SO4; sulfuric; 
HNO3; nitric; 
HClO4; perchloric
226
Q

strong bases to remember:
…
…
and other soluble hydroxides of …

A

NaOH;
KOH;
group I metals

227
Q

weak acids and bases only … in solution

A

partially dissociate

228
Q

a weak monoprotic acid will dissociate only … in water to achieve an equilibrium state

A

partially

229
Q

acid dissociation constant:
Ka = …
smaller Ka means the acid is … and will …

A

Ka = [H3O+][A-]/[HA];
weaker;
dissociate less

230
Q

Base dissociation constant:
Kb = …
smaller Kb means base is …

A

Kb = [B+][OH-]/[BOH];

weaker

231
Q

an acid is weak if its Ka is … and a base is weak if its Kb is …
on the MCAT, molecular weak bases are almost exclusively …

A

less than 1;
less than 1;
amines

232
Q

…: acid formed when base gains a proton

…: base formed when acid loses a proton

A

conjugate acid;

conjugate base

233
Q

because water is amphoteric, all acid-base reactivity in water ultimately reduces to the …, and all acidic or basic aqueous solutions are governed by the … for water

A

acid-base behavior of water;

dissociation constant

234
Q

Ka,acid * Kb, conjugate base = …

Kb,base * Ka, conjugate acid = …

A 
Kw = 10^-14; 
Kw = 10^-14
235
Q

Ka and Kb are … related

A

inversely

236
Q

conjugate of a strong acid/base is sometimes termed … because it is extremely …

A

inert; uncreactive

237
Q

inductive effect by electronegative atoms positioned near an acidic proton … acidity

A

increases

238
Q

most common use of acid and base dissociation constants is to determine the … of one of the …

A

concentration; species in solution at equilibrium

239
Q

for equilibrium rxn for acids and bases, the approximation of x as small enough to be negligible is valid as long as x is less than … of the initial concentration. typically occurs when Ka is at least … than the concentration of the starting solution

A

5% of the initial concentration;

100 times smaller

240
Q

… reactions tend to go to completion. reverse rxn in which … react with water to reform the acid or base is …

A

neutralization;

salt ions; hydrolysis

241
Q

products of a reaction between equal concentrations of a strong acid and a strong base are equimolar amounts of … and …
resulting pH is … and is … and the ions formed are … that won’t react with water

A

salt; water;
neutral; 7;
inert conjugates

242
Q

the products of a reaction between a strong acid and a weak base is a .., but water usually won’t be formed because weak bases generally aren’t …
cation of the salt is a … that will react with water solvent to re-form some of the weak base

A

salt;
hydroxides;
weak acid;

243
Q

pH of a solution containing a weak acid and a weak base depends on the relative ….

A

strengths of the reactants

244
Q

in bio and biochem, neutralization reactions are often … rxns because they form bonds with a small molecule as a byproduct

A

condensation

245
Q

…: one mole of H+

…: one mole of OH- ions

A

acid equivalent;

base equivalent

246
Q

…: each mole of the acid or base liberates more than one acid or base equivalent
under Bronsted definition these are also called …

A

polyvalent; polyprotic

247
Q

acidity or basicity of a solution depends on the … that can be liberated

A

concentration of acidic or basic equivalents

248
Q

… is the mass of a compound that produces one equivalent

A

gram equivalent weight

249
Q

…: procedure used to determine the concentration of a known reactant in a solution

A

titration

250
Q

titrations are performed by adding small volumes of a solution of known concentration (…) to a known volume of a solution of unknown concentration (…) until completion of the reaction is achieved at the …

A

titrant;
titrand;
equivalence point;

251
Q

in acid-base titrations, the equivalence point is when the … equals the …

A

equivalents of acid present; number of base equivalents added

252
Q

equivalence point does not always occur at pH 7, although it will for a … combo

A

strong acid, strong base

253
Q

polyprotic acids or bases will show …

A

multiple equivalence points

254
Q

… = … –> Na and Nb are the acid and base … and Va an Vb are the volumes of acid and base solutions

A

NaVa = NbVb; normalities

255
Q

equivalence point can be measured using a graphical method and plotting the pH of the unknown solution as a function of added titrant by using a … or estimated by watching for a … of an …

A

pH meter; color change; added indicator

256
Q

…: weak organic acids or bases that have different colors in their protonated and deprotonated states –> must be … acid or base than the acid or base being titrated so that it is not titrated first

A

indicators;

weaker

257
Q

indicators:
can be used in low concs without substantially …
…: the point at which the indicator changes to its final color –> in a good titration with the proper indicator, the … between endpoint and equivalence point should be negligible

A

altering equivalence point;
endpoint;
volume difference

258
Q

weak acid/base titrations can be done but are …

A

inaccurate

259
Q

for a strong acid strong base combo, in the early part of the curve, … species predominates so addition of small amounts of base will not impact … conc or … substantially. in the last part of the titration curve when an excess of base has been added, the addition of small amounts of base will not change the … significantly
addition of base will have the largest impact near the …

A

acidic;
hydroxide; pH;
hydroxide ion conc;
equivalence point

260
Q

if one uses a pH meter to charge the change in pH as a function of volume of titrant added, a good approximation can be made of the equivalence point by locating the … of the region of the curve with the …

A

midpoint; steepest slope

261
Q

strong acid + weak base: equivalence point …
strong acid + strong base: equivalence point pH …
weak acid + strong base: equivalence point ..

A

< 7;
= 7;
pH > 7

262
Q

the appearance of the titration curve for a weak base titrand and strong acid titrant will look like an … of the curve for a weak acid titrand and strong base titrant

A

inversion

263
Q

for weak acid and weak base combo because both the titrant and the titrand are weak, the initial pH is in the … range and will demonstrate a very … drop at the equivalence point equivalence pt will be near … pH because the reaction is partially … for both species

A

3-11;
shallow;
neutral;
dissociative

264
Q 
to identify which type of titration is being shown in a graph identify the starting position in the graph: 
pH >> 7 = titrand is a ..., 
> 7 (slightly) = ... 
< 7 (slightly) = ... 
and << 7 pH = ...
A

strong base;
weak base;
weak acid;
strong acid

265
Q

the center of the buffer region is sometimes termed the … because it occurs when half of a given species has been …/…

A

half-equivalence point;

protonated; deprotonated

266
Q

a buffer solution consists of a mixture of a … and its … or a mixture of a … and its …
can resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added

A

weak acid; salt;

weak base; salt

267
Q

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
pH = …
when [A-] = [HA], …, because log (1) = …
buffering capacity is … at this point

A

pKa + log [A-]/[HA];
pH = pKa;
0;
optimal

268
Q

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
pOH = …
when [B+] = [BOH], …
buffering capacity optimal at this point

A

pKb + log[B+]/[BOH];

pOH = pKb

269
Q

if the concentrations of the acid and conjugate base were both increased such that their ratio remained the same, the … would not change but the … would increase

A

pH;

buffering capacity

270
Q

buffering capacity is generally maintained within … of the pKa value
…: the ability to which the system can resist changes in pH

A

1 pH unit;

buffering capacity

271
Q

…: electrical charge can be neither created nor destroyed

… and …must occur simultaneously

A

law of conservation of charge; ‘

oxidation; reduction

272
Q

… causes another atom to be oxidized and is itself reduced
… causes another atom to be reduced and is itself oxidized

A

oxidizing agent;

reducing agent

273
Q

almost all oxidizing agents contain … or another … element

A

oxygen; strongly electronegative

274
Q

reducing agents often contain … ions or …

A

metal; hydrides

275
Q 
common oxidizing agents: 
... 
... 
... 
... 
...
A 
O2; 
H2O2; 
halogens 
H2SO4
HNO3
276
Q 
common oxidizing agents contd: 
... 
... 
..., ... 
... 
..., ...
A 
NaClO
KMnO4 
CrO3, Na2Cr2O7 
PCC 
NAD+; FADH
277
Q 
common reducing agents: 
... 
... 
... 
... and other ... 
...
A 
CO; 
C; 
B2H6; 
Sn2+; pure metals 
hydrazine;
278
Q 
common reducing agents: 
... 
... 
... 
... 
..., ...
A 
Zn(Hg); 
Lindlar's catalyst; 
NaBH4; 
LiAlH4; 
NADH, FADH2
279
Q

biochemical redox reagents tend to act as both … and … agents at different times during metabolic pathways

A

oxidizing; reducing

280
Q

the term oxidizing agent or reducing agent is applied specifically to the atom that … or …

A

loses; gains electrons

281
Q

…: assigned to atoms to keep track of the redistribution of electrons during chemical rxns. allows determination of how many … are … by each atom

A

oxidization numbers; electrons are gained or lost

282
Q

oxidation number rules:
oxidation number of a free element is …
oxidation number for a monatomic ion is …

A

0;

equal to its charge

283
Q

oxidation number rules:
oxidation of each group 1 element in a compound is …
oxidation of each group 2 element in a compound is …
oxidation number of each group 17 element is … except when bonded to an element of higher electronegativity

A

+1;
+2;
-1

284
Q

oxidation number rules:
oxidation number of hydrogen is usually … except for when its bonded to less electronegative elements, in which case it is …
in most compounds, the oxidation number of oxygen is … It is … in peroxides

A

+1;

  • 1;
  • 2;
  • 1
285
Q

oxidation number rules:
the sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms present present in a neutral compound is ….
the sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms present in a polyatomic ion is equal to the … of the ion

A

0;

charge

286
Q

oxidation number assumes … of electrons in bonds, awarding the electrons to the …. element. formal charge assumes … in bonds, awarding one electron to each atom in the bond –> electron density distribution lies between these two extremes

A

unequal division;
more electronegative;
equal division of electrons;

287
Q

most common method for balancing redox equations is half-reaction/ion-electron method in which the equation is separated into …
these individual half reactions are … and then …

A

redox half-reactions;

balanced; added

288
Q

…: do not participate in the reaction
a reaction can be simplified to the …, removing …
aqueous compounds are split into their … but solid salts should remain a single entity

A

spectator ions;
net ionic equation; spectator ions;
constituent ions

289
Q

…/… reactions are not usually redox reactions

A

double-displacement; metathesis

290
Q

in double-displacement reactions where both reactants and both products are … there is no …

A

aqueous; net reaction

291
Q

… rxns and … rxns in biological systems in general are usually accomplished by enzymes

A

biochemical disproportionation; redox

292
Q

redox titrations follow the transfer of … as … to reach the equivalence point
use indicators that change color at a particular … (…) value

A

charge; electrons;

voltage; emf

293
Q

…: specific redox titration that uses starch indicators to identify iodine complexes –> relies on the titration of …

A

iodimetric titration;

free iodine radicals

294
Q

…: form of redox titration where no indicator is used and the voltage is instead measured using a voltmeter

A

potentiometric titration

MCAT (11 decks)

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