Kaplan Bio Contd. Flashcards by Gail I

circulatory system:
…
…
…

heart
blood vessels
blood

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vasculature
…
…
…

arteries
capillaries
veins

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heart has four chambers made predominantly of .. muscle –> …, …, .., …

cardiac
right atria
left atria
right ventricle 
left ventricle

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… deliver deoxygenated blood to the right side of the heart. … bring that blood from right ventricle to the lungs where they are reoxygenated

vena cava; pulmonary arteries

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… brings reoxygenated blood from lungs to the left ventricle and then out through the aorta to the rest of the body

pulmonary veins

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heart can be through of as two pumps supporting two different circulations:
… + … = … circulation
… + … = .. circulation

right side; pulmonary arteries; pulmonary

left side; pulmonary veins; systemic

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… are thin walled structures that contract to move blood into the ventricles

atria

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… contract to send blood through rest of circulatory system

ventricles

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atria are separated from ventricles by …:
valve between right atrium and right ventricle –> … (…) valve
valve between left atrium and left ventricle –> … (..) valve

atrioventricular valves
tricuspid; three leaflet
mitral; bicuspid

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ventricles are separated from vasculature by … valves:
valve between right ventricle and pulmonary circulation –> … valve
valve between left ventricle and aorta –> … valve
these types of valves have ..

semilunar
pulmonary
aortic
three leaflets

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left heart is more muscular than right heart because it must …, since blood coming from left ventricle has to circulate through entire body

contract more forcibly

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electrical impulses in the heart originate at the … at a rate of ..-… signals per min (which dictates normal adult heartrate), then to … to … and its branches, to …

sinoatrial node; 60-100; atrioventricular node; bundle of His; Purkinje fibers

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… from SA node causes atria to contract at the same time
atrial … (contraction) increases … to force . more blood than would passively travel into the ventricles –> … (about ..-…% of cardiac output)
signal at AV node is delayed to allow ventricles to … when signal travels down His to fibers, ventricles can …

depolarization wave
systole; atrial pressure; atrial kick; 5-30%
fill up; contract

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bundle of His and branches is imbedded in the … –> the wall between the ventricles

interventricular septum

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muscle cells of heart are connected by …, whose cells are connected by … to allow for coordinated ventricular contraction

intercalated discs; gap junctions

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circulatory system under … control
sympathetic increases … and …
parasympathetic, by way of …, slows it down

autonomic
rate; contractility
vagus nerve

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…: ventricular contraction, closure of AV valves

systole

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…: heart is relaxed, semilunar valves are closed, blood from atria fills ventricles

diastole

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… of the walls of the large arteries allows for blood pressure to be maintained during diastole. during diastole, these arteries now have a smaller volume (bc they are no longer stretched by blood flowing rapidly through it), and thus pressure …

elasticity; increases

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…: total blood volume pumped by a ventricle in a minute –> product of … (…) and … (…)

cardiac output; heart rate (beats per min); stroke volume (volume of blood pumped per beat)

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for humans, cardiac output tends to be about … L per min
… increases cardiac output
… decreases cardiac output

5
sympathetic
parasympathetic

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major arteries (e.g. coronary, carotid, subclavian, renal) divide bloodflow from .. toward different …

aorta; peripheral tissues

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arteries branch into …, then …, which goes into …, then …

arterioles; capillaries; venules; veins

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blood vessels are all lined with … cells, which have 3 functions:
…/…
allow … to travel to tissue when a pathogen is present/during inflammatory response
release …

endothelial
vasodilation; vasoconstriction
WBCs
clotting factors

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arteries have more .. than veins, capillaries have …

smooth muscle; no smooth muscle

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arteries are very muscular and elastic –> much … to blood flow
this is partly why left heart has to generate much higher pressures –> …

resistance; overcome resistance

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capillaries allow for … from circulatory system to tissues and vice versa. also allow for exchange of …

exchange of materials; endocrines ignals

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veins can … to accommodate larger quantities of blood, and at any given moment may hold … volume of blood. despite this, … between veins and arteries is the same

stretch; 3/4; cardiac output

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since blood flow in veins tends to go against gravity, there must be a way to push blood forward
… to prevent back flow –>
back flow can cause … (… veins)
… pushes blood forward as well –> must be mobile for this. being immobile over extended periods of time leads to …

valves; varicose veins; distended

skeletal muscle contraction; blood clots

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mostly, blood only travels through … before it returns to the heart. there are three …, though, in which it travels through two:

one capillary bed; portal systems

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hepatic portal system: capillary beds in … –> capillary beds in .. –> …

walls of gut; liver; heart

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hypophyseal portal system:

capillary beds in … –> beds in … to allow for paracrine secretion –> ..

hypothalamus; anterior pituitary; heart

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renal portal system: blood leaves … through … –> capillary network in … –> …

glomerulus; efferent arteriole; vasa recta; heart

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plasma: liquid portion of blood, contains …, …, …, …, …

nutrients; salts; respiratory gases; hormones; blood proteins

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cellular portion of blood;

…, …, and …

erythrocytes; leukocytes; platelets

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…: red blood cell, specialized for oxygen transport, contains about 250 molecules of hemoglobin

erythrocyte

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hemoglobin can bind … molecules of oxygen
each RBC can cary about … molecules of oxygen
RBCs are … –> allows them to travel through tiny capillaries and increase surface area for more gas exchange

four; 1 billion; biconcave

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mature RBCs lack ..

lack of … in RBCs prevents use of oxygen for …

organelles; mitochondria; oxidative phosphorylation

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RBCs rely on … for ATP and produce … –> undergo …

glycolysis; lactic acid; anaerobic fermentation

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… measure amount of hemoglobin as grams/deciliter
… - … for males
… - … for females

hemoglobin count

5; 17.5
0; 16.0

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…measures percent of RBCs in a blood sample
…-…% for males
…-…% for females

hematocrit
41; 53
36; 46

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…: WBCs, comprise less than 1% of blood volume

leukocytes

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(leukocytes) …: the “phils”

…, …, …

granulocytes;

neutrophils; eosinophils; basophils

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(leukocytes) granulocytes contain … in their cytoplasm that has chemicals that are toxic to invaders
involved in … rxns, …, … formation, and destruction of … and …

granules

inflammatory; allergies; pus formation; bacteria; parasites

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(leukocytes) …: the “cytes”

… and …

agranulocytes

lymphocytes; monocytes

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(leukocytes) agranulocytes:
lymphocytes conduct … immune response –> targeted fight against particular pathogens
mature in bone marrow = … cells
mature in thymus = … cells

specific;
B
T

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(leukocytes) agranulocytes:
monocytes: …
in organs: known as …

phagocytize foreign matter

macrophages

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…/…: cell fragments/shards released from cells in bone marrow known as .. –> assist in blood clotting

thrombocytes; platelets

megakaryocytes

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…: production of blood cells and platelets
…: secreted by kidney, stimulates mainly RBC development
…: secreted by liver and kidney and stimulates mainly platelet development

hetaopoiesis
erythropoietin
thrombopoietin

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RBCs have surface antigens –> … antigens and ..

ABO; Rh factor

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ABO antigens:
A and B are … –> if expressed together yields AB genotype
whole blood is never given in a transfusion –> …, without plasma, so … don’t need to be considered

codominant

packed RBCs; plasma antigens

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ABO antigens:
if wrong blood type is given, … may occur
antibodies to other blood types may be developed bc … may have proteins that match A and B alleles –> acts as source of exposure that allows for development of appropriate antibodies

hemolysis

E. coli

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Rh-positive or Rh-negative refers to presence or absence of an allele …
… is dominant

Rh-positive

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for mothers that are Rh-negative and have babies that are Rh+, during birth, … against Rh+ will develop. this isn’t an issue for the first baby, but if second baby is also Rh+, and antibodies against Rh+ travel through the placenta, there may be … of fetal cells –> …

antibodies; hemolysis; erythroblastosis fetalis

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erythroblastosis fetalis issue doesn’t really happen with ABO blood types, bc these antibodies are of class …, which don’t really cross the placenta

IgM

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… is a measure of force per unit area exerted on the wall of the blood vessels

blood pressure

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much like an electromotive force (voltage) drives a current through a given electrical resistance, the pressure gradient across the circulatory system drives … through a given …

cardiac output; vascular resistance

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pressure differential across circulation = … * total …

cardiac output; vascular resistance

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the … a blood vessel, the more resistance it offers. the larger the … of a blood vessel, the less resistance it offers

longer; cross-sectional area

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blood pressure is regulated using … in the walls of the vasculature

baroreceptors

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BP increased by stimulation of …, by release of … when blood osmolarity is high, or release of … if there is low perfusion to juxtaglomerular cells (which would indicate that blood isn’t pumping sufficiently to further parts of the body)

sympathetic nervous system; ADH; aldosterone

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BP can be decreased by decreasing … impulses, permitting … can also be by release of … by the heart

sympathetic; relaxation of vasculature; atrial natriuretic peptide

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oxygen is carried by hemoglobin. hemoglobin has 4 …, each of which has a prosthetic … group that binds to an oxygen molecule

cooperative subunit; heme

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some oxygen diffuses into the blood and dissolves into the …, but this amount is negligible compared to the amount bound to hemoglobin

plasma

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…: percent of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen

oxygen saturation

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when oxygen binds to one subunit of hemoglobin, hgb goes from … to … state and induces this change in the other subunits to increase their affinity to oxygen –> … binding
… regulation that results in classic … oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

tense; relaxed; cooperative

allosteric; sigmoidal

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most of CO2 exists in blood as the …, not really dissolved in plasma or transported by hemoglobin

bicarbonate ion

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when CO2 enters a RBC, … catalyzes the formation of …, which then dissociates

carbonic anhydrase; carbonic acid

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pH can have allosteric effects on oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve –> lower pH means … hemoglobin affinity for oxygen

lower

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lower hemoglobin affinity shows … in oxyhemoglobin curve –> … effect

shift to right; Bohr

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causes of a right shift of the oxyhemoglobin curve: exercise is the right thing to do (mnemonic). the following occurs during exercise:
increased …
increased … concentration
increased …
also increased .., side product of glycolysis

partial pressure of CO2
proton
temperature
2,3-BPG

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carbs and amino acids are absorbed into the capillaries of the small intestine and enter systemic circulation via the

hepatic portal system

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fats are absorbed into … in the small intestine and enter systemic circulation via the …

lacteals; thoracic duct

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wastes travel to … and are filtered or secreted for elimination

kidney

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…: cells surrounding the blood vessels

interstitium

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…: force per unit area that the blood exerts against the vessel walls (blood pressure)
pushes fluid … and …

hydrostatic pressure

out of the bloodstream; into the interstitium

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…/…: pressure generated by solutes as they attempt to draw water into the bloodstream
most of it is attributable to …
pulls fluid …

osmotic/oncotic pressure
plasma proteins
into vessels

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at arteriole end of capillary bed, … pressure is greater than …
at venule end, … pressure is greater than …

hydrostatic; oncotic

oncotic; hydrostatic

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hydrostatic pressure pushes fluid … of vessels and is dependent on … driven by the heart and the elastic arteries. osmotic pressure pulls fluid … and is dependent on the …

out; blood pressure; back into the vessels; number of particles dissolved in the plasma

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…: hydrostatic and oncotic pressure

starling forces

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…: accumulation of excess fluid in the interstitial fluid

edema

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…: lymphatic fluid

returned to central circulatory system by the …

lymph; thoracic duct

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movement of solutes and fluid at the capillary level is governed by …, just like movement of CO2 and O2 in the lungs

pressure differentials

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…: coagulation factors and platelets; prevent/minimize blood loss

clots

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damaged endothelium exposes underlying … tissue, which contains … and … –> when platelets come into contact with .. they begin to aggregate

connective; collagen; tissue factor; collagen

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coagulation factors sense … and initiate an …

tissue factor; activation cascade

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coagulation:
… is activated to form … by … this converts … to … which forms small fibers that aggregate and cross slink into a woven structure that captures … and … to form a clot

prothrombin; thrombin; thromboplastin; fibrinogen; fibrin; red blood cells; platelets

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a clot is broken down by …, which derives from …

plasmin; plasminogen

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… immunity: defenses that are always active against infection –> … immunity

innate; nonspecific

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innate immunity includes … molecules and … which can activate an … response, secreting … that trigger an influx of immune cells from the blood. some of these recruits are more …

antimicrobial; phagocytes; inflammatory; cytokines; phagocytes

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… immunity/… immunity –> target a specific pathogen, … to act, but maintains … of an infection to mount faster attack upon subsequent exposure

adaptive; specific

slower; memory

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adaptive immunity:
… and … cells. activated B-cells secrete … that bind to … T-cells recognize .. and can help activate … cells and other … cells or can directly …

B; T; antibodies; antigens; antigens; B cells; T cells; attack infected cells

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… produces all of the leukocytes

bone marrow

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… is location of B-cell storage and activation. B-cells turn into … to produce antibodies. when they leave spleen, they are … but …, since they haven’t been exposed to antigen yet –> .. immunity

spleen; plasma cells; mature; naive; humoral

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T-cells mature in … and are agents of … immunity –> coordinate immune system and directly kill infected cells

thymus; cell-mediated

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…: place for immune cells to communicate and mount an attack –> B-cells can be activated here too

lymph nodes

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… tissue: immune tissue close to digestive system

… and … in the head, … in the small intestine, lymphoid aggregates in the …

gut-associated lymphoid

tonsils; adenoids; Peyer’s patches; appendix

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granulocytes and agranulocytes both derive from …

hematopoietic stem cells

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first line of defense is the .. (…)
acts as a physical barrier
also contains … –> antibacterial enzymes
… has antimicrobial properties

skin; integument
defensins
sweat

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… involved in nonspecific/innate immunity:
stomach produces … that kills most pathogens
beneficial bacteria in the gut act as … of other pathogenic bacteria

GI tract;

acid; competitive excluders

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… system: nonspecific defense against bacteria:
… pathway –> binding of an antibody to a pathogen
… pathway –> does not require antibodies

complement
classical
alternative

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complements … in … of bacteria so that they are …

punch holes; cell wall; osmotically unstable

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…: prevent viral replication and dispersion –> decrease production of viral and cellular proteins in nearby cells and decrease … of these cells

interferons; permeability

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interferons also upregulate … and …
they are produced by …
… system that a cell has been infected –> interferes with ability of virus to …

MHC I; MHC II; infected cells; warning; further infect

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…: derive from monocytes and become a permanent, resident population in a tissue
… invaders, … invader, presents …of the invader using …
release …: stimulate inflammation and recruit additional immune cells

macrophages
phagocytizes; enzymatically digests; peptide antigens; MHC II
cytokines

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…: binds to a pathogenic peptide and presents it on the cell surface

major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

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MHC class I: presented by all … cells
any protein produced within a cell can be loaded onto these and presented on the cell surface for immune system to be able to monitor cellular health
… pathway –> binds antigens from inside the cell
invaded cells can be killed by …

nucleated;
endogenous
cytotoxic T-lymphocytes

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MHC class II: presented by … cells such as …, … cells in the skin, some … cells and some activated … cells

antigen-presenting; macrophages; dendritic; B; epithelial

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MHC class II: 
... pathway --> antigens originated outside the cell

exogenous

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marophages and dendritic cells have … receptors –> can recognize category of invader to elicit production of the correct … to recruit the right type of immune cells
best described of these is the … receptor

pattern recognition receptors (PRR)

toll-like

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… cells: nonspecific lymphocyte that recognizes downregulation of MHC caused by a virus and induces … in infected cells
can also protect against …, since these cells may downregulate MHC

natural killer; apoptosis; cancer

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…: most abundant leukocyte and short-lived
phagocytes that can track bacteria via … and can detect … bacteria – bacteria that have been marked with an … from a B-cell
stalk and kill

neutrophils

chemotaxis; opsonized; antibody

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dead neutrophil collections = …

pus

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…: bright orange granules, involved in allergic rxns and parasitic infections
release large amount of … –> increased … and … of blood vessels, allowing additional immune cells to move into tissue

eosinophils; histamine; vasodilation; leakiness

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eosinophils:

inflammation is effective against extracellular pathogens such as .., …, and …

bacteria; fungi; parasites

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… and … cells are involved in allergic reaction and release large amounts of histamines in response to allergens, leading to …

basophils; mast; inflammation

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antibodies =

immunoglobulins

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… = lymphatic fluid

chyle

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antibodies can be present on the … or …

cell surface; secreted into body fluids

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for antibodies secreted into body fluids, there are three main responses:
can attract leukocytes to phagocytize the antigens –> …
can cause pathogens to clump together such that the clump can be phagocytized –> …
can … the pathogen

opsonization
agglutination
neutralize

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for cell-surface antibodies, a B-cell will … and …, … and forming … and … cells

bind; activate; proliferating; plasma; memory

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…: exocytosis of granule contents that occurs when an antigen binds to antibodies on the surface of a mast cell

degranulation

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antibodies are Y-shaped and have two identical … domains and two identical … domains. they have … sites on the tips of the Y, at the end of the .. region

light; heavy; antigen-binding; variable

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B-cells undergo … of the antigen-binding region to match the antigen –> the ones that have the highest affinity for the antigen survive –> …

hypermutation; clonal selection

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… region of the antibody is what immune cells have receptors for, and consequently initiate … when recognized

constant; complement cascades

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antibodies have five different isotopes: .., …, …, …, … –> …: cells change which isotope of an antibody they produce when stimulated by specific cytokines

IgM; IgD; IgG: IgE; IgA; isotope switching

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plasma cells produce large amounts of … but memory B-cells remain in the … until reexposure
initial activation = … response, takes about …-… days
upon reexposure, when memory cells are activated –> … response
immune memory is basis for vaccinations

antibodies; lymph node
primary; 7-10
secondary

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T-cells mature in thymus and undergo … and …. selection
…: maturing only cells that can respond to presentation of antigen on MHC
…: apoptosis in cells that are self-reactive (activated by proteins produced by organism itself)
maturation induced by …

positive; negative
positive
negative
thymosin

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T-cells also undergo …, such that those with highest affinity for antigen proliferate

clonal selection

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(three types of T-cells)
helper-T cells –> … T cells
secrete … to recruit other immune cells and increase their activity
respond to antigens presented on … molecules, bc these are attached to immune cells that are antigen-presenting –> allows for amplification of immune response

CD4+
lymphokines
MHC II

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(three types of T-cells) cytotoxic T-cells –> … T-cells
directly kill virally infected cells by inducing …
respond to antigens presented on …, bc these are attached to infected cells

CD8+;
apoptosis
MHC I

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(three types of T-cells) …/… T-cells –> also CD4
different from helper, because they have …
… once infection has been contained
turn off … to prevent autoimmune disease –> …

suppressor; regulatory
Foxp3
suppress immune response
self-reactive lymphocytes; self-tolerance

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… are also generated during an immune response

memory T-cells

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five types of infectious pathogens: 
... 
... 
... 
... 
... (no immune defense for this one)

bacteria
virus
fungi
parasites
prions

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bacterial (extracellular pathogen) infections:
macrophages engulf bacteria and release … also present antigens via .. –> attract more inflammatory cells
… cells are activated and released histamine, resulting in increased leakiness of capillaries which augments immune cells’ ability to …

inflammatory mediators; MHC II

mast cells; travel to affected tissue

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bacterial (extracellular pathogen) infections:
dendritic cells leave affected tissue and present antigens to … and … to initiate their responses
mainly … response is activated for T-cells –> … and …
… is helper cell that releases interferon gamma to activate macrophages and increase their ability to kill bacteria
… is helper cell that activates B-cells –> more common in parasitic infections

B-cells; T-cells
CD4+; Th1; Th2
Th1
Th2

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viral (intracellular pathogen) infections:
infected cell produces … and present antigens via …
… T-cells will induce apoptosis in infected cells, or, if MHC has been downregulated, … will induce apoptosis

interferons; MHC-I

CD8+; natural killer cells

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…: proteins and carbs present on the cell surface that indicate to the immune system that the cell is non-threatening and shouldn’t be attacked
…: cases where self is recognized as foreign

self-antigens

autoimmunity

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… reactions: immune system recognizes foreign antigen as dangerous when it isn’t (allergies) as well as autoimmune rxns
negative selection for T-cells kills T-cells that respond to self-antigens

hypersensitivity

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B-cells that respond to self-antigens are also eliminated before they can

leave bone marrow

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… can have immunosuppressive qualities and can be used to treat autoimmune diseases

glucocorticoids

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… immunity: immune system is stimulated to produce antibodies against a specific pathogen
natural/artificial
artificial = …

active

vaccines

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… immunity: transfer of antibodies to an individual
temporary, bc the … that produce the antibodies are not being transferred
this occurs during pregnancy as antibodies are transferred across the placenta
can be done artificially too

passive; plasma cells

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lymphatic system is a type of … system –> made of one way vessels that grow larger as they move toward … of the body
vessels contain … and most join to comprise the … which delivers lymph into the …

circulatory 
center 
lymph 
thoracic duct 
left subclavian vein

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lymph nodes contain a …, an …, and a …
function as space for cells of immune system to be exposed to possible pathogens
act like a .. for immune cells

lymphatic channel; artery; vein

classroom

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at arterial end of capillary beds, hydrostatic pressure is higher than oncotic, so some fluid remains in tissues. … drain these tissues and return the fluid to the bloodstream. these vessels function for …

lymphatic vessels; equalization of fluid distribution

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…: key plasma protein

albumin

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lymphatic system transports … from digestive system into the bloodstream
…: small lymphatic vessels located in the center of each villus in the small intestine. fats enter these for transport as …

fats
lacteals
chylomicrons

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lymphatic fluid carrying chylomicrons is …

chyle

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lymph nodes act as a location for antigen presenting cells and … to interact
…: collections of mature B-cells in the lymph nodes

lymphocytes

germinal centers

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…: oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for energy

intracellular digestion

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…: process by which nutrients are obtained from food

extracellular digestion

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…: runs from the mouth to the anus and is sectioned off by sphincters

alimentary canal

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…: circular smooth muscles around the canal that can contract to allow compartmentalization of function

sphincters

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…: breakdown of food into its substituent components
…: physical breakdown of larger food particles into smaller food particles –> no breaking of chemical bonds
…: enzymatic cleavage of chemical bonds

digestion
mechanical digestion
chemical digestion

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…: transport of products of digestion into the circulatory system for distribution to cells and tissues

absorption

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digestive tract begins with …, to .., to .., to .., to …, to …, to …

oral cavity 
pharynx 
esophagus 
stomach 
small intestine 
large intestine 
rectum

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…, …, …, and … help provide enzymes and lubrication to assist digestion

salivary glands
pancreas
live
gallbladder

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… nervous system: 100 million neurons that govern function of GI system
present in walls of digestive tract and trigger …
can function independently of … and …
regulated by …
… stimulates digestive activities

enteric 
peristalsis 
spinal cord; brain 
autonomic NS 
parasympathetic NS

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all of the glands of the body except the sweat glands are innervated by the …

parasympathetic NS

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ADH and aldosterone trigger sensation of …, leading to …

thirst; fluid consumption

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… and … (secreted by stomach and pancreas) trigger sensation of hunger

glucagon; ghrelin

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… and … stimulate feelings of satiety

leptin; cholecystokinin

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…: breaking up of large food particles by using the teeth, tongue, and lips
increases .. ratio, creating more .. for enzymatic digestion
also ensures that there won’t be any … risk from large food particles by breaking these down
mechanical

mastication;
surface area: volume; surface area
obstructive

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… produce saliva:
aid mechanical digestion by … and … food
presence of food in oral cavity increases … stimulation of these glands such that salivation occurs. can also be triggered by … and … of food

salivary glands
moistening; lubricating
parasympathetic
sight; scent

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salivary glands contain … (…) and …
… hydrolyzes starch
… hydrolyzes lipids

salivary amylase; ptyalin; lipase
salivary amylase
lipase

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muscular tongue in mouth forms food into a … that is forced back into the pharynx and is swallowed

bolus

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pharynx can be divided into three parts:
…: behind nasal cavity
…: at the back of the mouth
…: above the vocal cords
… prevents food from entering larynx during swallowing
no mechanical/chemical digestion in pharynx

nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngopharynx

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top third of esophagus is composed of …, bottom third is composed of …, middle third is mix –> top of esophagus is under … control (…), the bottom is under …. control (…)

skeletal muscle; smooth muscle; somatic motor; voluntary; autonomic; involuntary

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… (…) occurs when peristalsis occurs in the reverse direction

emesis; vomiting

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upper esophageal sphincter between … and …

pharynx; esophagus

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lower esophageal sphincter/ … sphincter: between … and …

cardiac; esophagus; stomach

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3 main energy sources: …, …, …

carbs; fats; proteins

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no mechanical/chemical digestion in esophagus besides continued … initiated in mouth by salivary enzymes

enzymatic activity

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stomach has a capacity of about …

2 L

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stomach has thick … to prevent autodigestion from acids/enzymes in the stomach

mucous layer

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stomach has four main anatomical divisions
… and … –> contain gastric glands
… and … –> contain pyloric glands

fundus; body

antrum; pylorus

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internal curvature of the stomach is the … external curvature is the …

lesser curvature; greater curvature

…: folds in lining of stomach

rugae

gastric glands regulated by parasympathetic NS via the … –> activated by sight, taste, and smell of food

vagus nerve

gastric glands secretes … cells, … cells and … cells

mucous; chief; parietal

… cells: produce bicarbonate-rich mucous that protects muscular wall of stomach

mucous

…: secretions from chief and parietal cells

gastric juice

chief cells produce …, which is activated by … to become .., which cleaves peptide bonds near … amino acids to break down proteins

pepsinogen; hydrochloric acid; pepsin; aromatic

pepsin most active at … ph, which is unique bc most human enzymes are most active at physiological pH

low;

parietal cells secrete … and … –glycoprotein involved in absorption of vitamin B-12

HCl; intrinsic factor

pyloric glands in stomach have an … function –> contain … cells that secrete …, which stimulates parietal cells such that more … is released

endocrine; G; gastrin; HCl

gastrin also signals stomach to … such that its contents are …

contract; mixed

…: semifluid, acidic mixture resulting from digestion in the stomach

chyme

some nutrients are … directly from stomach (e.g. alcohol, aspirin), but stomach is mainly for digestion

absorbed

3 segments of small intestine: …, …, …
… is the site of most of chemical digestion, minor involvement in absorption
absorption primarily occurs in … and …

duodenum; jejunum; ileum;
duodenum
jejunum; ileum

…: between stomach and duodenum

pyloric sphincter

chyme in the duodenum causes release of .. –> … and …, etc
… are present on cell surfaces lining the duodenum and break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules

brush-border enzymes; disaccharidases; peptidases

brush border enzymes

disaccharidases digest disaccharides: 
... - ... 
... - ... 
... - ... 
... - ...

o Maltase – maltose
o Isomaltase – isomaltose
o Lactase – lactose
o Sucrase – sucrose

lack of a disaccharidase = inability to digest corresponding disaccharide
… then hydrolyze disaccharide, releasing …
undigested disaccharides pull … into stool due to an … effect, causing diarrhea

bacteria; methane; water; osmotic

… break down proteins:
…: secreted by glands in duodenum, removes N-terminal amino acid from a peptide
…: cleave peptide bonds of dipeptides, freeing individual amino acids
unlike carbs, di- and tripeptides can be absorbed across small intestine wall

peptidases
aminopeptidase
dipeptidases

… is released by duodenum and activates other enzymes:
activates … to …
activates … and …

enteropeptidase
trypsinogen; trypsin
procarboxypeptidases A and B

…: allows for release of pancreatic enzymes in the duodenum and opposes … in that it reduces HCl secretion from parietal cells and increases .. secretion from the pancreas

secretin; gastrin; bicarbonate

secretin is an … –> slows motility through digestive tract to increase time for digestive enzymes to act on chyme

enterogastrone

… stimulates release of bile and pancreatic juices and also promotes satiety

cholecystokinin

..: consists of bile salts, pigments, and cholesterol –> is itself derived from …

not an …

bile; cholesterol; enzyme

bile plays a role in mechanical digestion of … and facilitate chemical digestion of …
… fats and cholesterol into …, otherwise fats would separate from aqueous layer and would not be able to be acted upon by the water soluble enzyme …

fats; lipids
emulsify; micelles
pancreatic lipase

bile
micelles increase … of fats, increasing speed of lipase’s action
bile brings fats into solution and increases surface area and lipase subsequently … holding lipids together

surface area;

hydrolyzes ester bonds

… : mixture of several enzymes in a bicarbonate-rich alkaline solution
bicarbonate … and brings pH to optimum for digestive enzyme (around …

pancreatic juices
neutralizes acidic chyme
8.5

accessory organs of digestion: …, …, …

pancreas; liver; gallbladder

… cells: cells that produce pancreatic juices to execute endocrine function of pancreas

acinar

pancreatic enzymes:

… : breaks down polysaccharides for carb digestion

pancreatic amylase

pancreatic enzymes: 
..., ..., and ... 
produced in zymogen form but activated 
... activates ..., which activates the rest 
these are peptidases

trypsinogen; chymotrypsinogen; carboxypeptidases A and B

enteropeptidase; trypsin

pancreatic enzymes:

…: breaks down fats into free fatty acids and glycerol

pancreatic lipase

like all exocrine cells, acinar cells secrete their products into …, which empty into the duodenum through the major and minor …

ducts; duodenal papillae

bile ducts connect … with the … and …

liver; gallbladder; small intestine

… produces bile that is stored and concentrated in the …

liver; gallbladder

liver receives blood draining from abdominal portion of the digestive tract via … –> blood is processed by liver and then enters … to make its way back to the heart

hepatic portal vein

inferior vena cava

liver can take up excess sugar by producing … and can store fats as …
can also undo these via … and … and mobilizing fats in …

glycogen; triacylglycerols

glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis; lipoprotiens

liver detoxifies … and … compounds

endogenous; exogenous

…: major pigment in bile –> byproduct of .. breakdown

bilirubin; hemoglobin

bilirubin is … (attached to a protein_ and secreted into bile for excretion

conjugated

… occurs when bilirubin can’t be excreted by the liver –> indicative of liver damage/ too much …/ blockage of …

jaundice; RBC destruction; bile ducts

liver synthesizes certain proteins:
…: maintains plasma oncotic pressure and acts as a carrier for some drugs and hormones
…: important for blood coagulation

albumin; clotting factors

…: contracts and pushes bile out into biliary tree and empties into duodenum
bile duct system merges with …

gallbladder; pancreatic duct

… or … can form in gallbladder and can potentially block the … and … (latter would lead to pancreatitis)

cholesterol; bilirubin; biliary tree; pancreatic duct

accessory organs of digestion originate from the

embryonic endoderm

large intestine largely

absorbs water

small intestine lined with … –> small, fingerlike projections from epithelial lining

villi

each villus has … that increases SA for absorption
at the middle of each villus is a … for absorption of water soluble nutrients and a …, which takes up fats for transport into the lymphatic system

microvilli

capillary bed; lacteal

simple sugars and amino acids are absorbed by … and … into the epithelial cells lining the small intestine
they move into … and are picked up the bloodstream, travelling down their concentration gradient
the absorbed molecules are brought to the liver via the …

secondary active transport; facilitated diffusion; intestinal capillaries; hepatic portal circulation

small fatty acids diffuse directly into … –> … so can pass through cell membranes

intestinal capillaries; nonpolar

larger fats, glycerol, and cholesterol move into … and reform … these are packaged into … and enter lymphatic system via lacteals. lacteals converge and enter … through thoracic duct, and this is emptied into …

intestinal cells; triglycerides
chylomicrons
venous circulation; left subclavian vein

… are absorbed in the small intestine –> fat and water soluble

vitamins

fat soluble vitamins dissolve into … to enter the body

water-soluble vitamins pass directly into …

chylomicrons

plasma

avg person may consume up to 2 L of fluid per day, but secretions into the upper GI tract my total up to … L of fluid per day. to maintain proper fluid levels, much of this fluid must be …

7 L; reabsorbed by osmosis

water passes … (across cell membrane) and … (squeezing between cells) to reach blood

transcellularly; paracellulary

large intestine consists of the …, …, and …

larger … but .. than small intestine

cecum; colon; rectum

diameter; shorter

cecum accepts fluid exiting small intestine through the … valve and is site of attachment of the …

ileococcal; appendix

appendix used to be thought of as vestigial. may be useful against some … and repopulating large intestine with … after ..

bacterial infections; flora; diarrhea

colon is divided into …, …, …, and … colons

ascending; transverse; descending; sigmoid

colon absorbs … and … from undigested material left over from small intestine
small intestine absorbs more water than colon
colon primarily concentrates ..

water; salts;

remaining material to feces

rectum … which consists of indigestible material, water, bacteria, digestive secretions that are not reabsorbed, and some bile

stores feces

anus is opening through which … –> two sphincters: … and .. sphincters
… is under involuntary control
… is under voluntary control

feces is excreted
internal and external anal sphincters;
internal
external

bacteria in intestine have … relationships

some produce …, …, etc

symbiotic

vitamin K; biotin

excretory system: 
... 
... 
... 
...

kidneys
ureters
bladder
urethra

functional unit of kidney = …

nephron

nephrons empty into …, which narrows to form …

renal pelvis; ureter

urine travels through ureter to …and exits the body through the ..

bladder; urethra

kidney is subdivided into a .. and a …
…: outermost layer
…: within the cortex

cortex; medulla
cortex
medulla

kidney has a … –> deep slit in center of medial surface
widest part of the ureter (…) spans almost the entire width of this
…, …, and ureter enter and exit through this slit

renal hilium
renal pelvis
renal artery; renal vein

kidney has a portal system:
renal artery branches into cortex as …
..: capillary tufts derived from these

afferent arterioles

glomeruli

kidney has a portal system contd:

after blood passes through a glomerulus, the … form a second capillary bed that surrounds .. –> …

efferent arterioles; loop of Henle; vasa recta

glomerulus is surrounded by a … which leads to .., then … and … of the …, …, and …

Bowman’s capsule; proximal convoluted tubule; descending and ascending limbs of the Loop of Henle; distal convoluted tubule; collecting duct

…: muscular lining of the bladder

contracts via … activity

detrusor muscle; parasympathetic

to leave body urine must pass both the … and …

internal urethral; external urethral sphincters

internal urethral sphincter is under … control is and is typically … –> made of …
external urethral sphincter is … and is made of … muscle

autonomic; contracted; smooth muscle

voluntary; skeletal

…: when bladder is full, .. receptors communicate to NS that it needs emptying, detrusor muscle contracts and … relax
individual’s choice at this point to pee or not

micturition reflex; stretch; internal sphincter

if blood volume is low and blood osmolarity is high, … would be most beneficial, resulting in … volume, … urine

retention of water; low; highly concentrated

if someone has sufficient quantities of fluid, they will have .. volume, … urine

larger; less concentrated

primary job of kidneys is to regulate … and …

blood volume; osmolarity

kidney function divided into three processes: …, …, …

filtration; secretion; reabsorption

filtration occurs at level of .. and …. The latter collects filtrate. this is governed by ..

glomerulus; Bowman’s capsule; Starling forces

… pressure in glomerulus is higher than in Bowman’s space such that fluid moves …
small molecules dissolved in blood will pass through tiny pores of glomerulus, whereas large molecules such as … and … will not. if these larger molecule are found in urine, indicates a health problem at level of …

hydrostatic; into nephron

proteins; blood cells; glomerulus

filtrate is … to blood so that neither capsule nor capillaries swell

isotonic

nephrons secrete …, …, …, and … into tubule via active and passive transport mechanisms

salts; acids; bases; urea

… is byproduct of metabolism of nitrogen containing compounds –> basic, can disturb pH of blood and cells
… neutralizes it by converting it to …, which is secreted into the nephron for excretion

ammonia; liver; urea

kidneys can eliminate ions/other substances present in excess –> … cations, … ions, metabolites of …, etc

K+; H+; medication

secretion is also for excreting wastes that are … to pass through glomerular pores

too large

..: some filtered/secreted compounds are taken back up, namely …, …, …

reabsorption; glucose; amino acids; vitamins

kidney’s two main goals: … and … and … to ..

keep what the body needs and lose what it doesn’t and concentrate the urine to conserve water

bowman’s capsule, PCT, and DCT are focused on the … in urine. Loop of Henle and collecting duct are focused on … and … of urine

identity of particles; volume; concentration

filtrate goes from Bowman’s capsule to proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) –> …, …, …, and … are reabsorbed along with water
filtrate still …
solutes that enter the interstitium reenter the bloodstream via the …
secretion of waste products –> …, …, …, …

amino acids
glucose
water-soluble vitamins
salts

H+
K+
ammonia
urea

waste products excreted in urine mnemonic:

dump the HUNK 
H: H+ 
U: Urea 
N: NH3 
K: K+

descending limb of loop of Henle: permeable to … only, deep in …, medulla has …, so water is … here

water; medulla; higher osmolarity; reabsorbed

deeper in medulla, osmolarity in interstitium can range from isotonic to blood (when trying to …) to … (when trying to …)

excrete water; four times as concentrated; conserve water

… system created by vasa recta –> two run in opposite directions
flow of … is in opposite direction as …, such that filtrate is constantly being exposed to … blood to allow maximal reabsorption of water

countercurrent multiplier; filtrate through Loop of Henle; flow of blood; hypertonic

ascending limb is permeable only to … –> as filtrate moves up ascending loop, … will be reabsorbed

salt; salt

as we go from inner to outer medulla, loop of Henle becomes … –> … segment
cells lining tube are larger here, bc they have a lot of … to allow for reabsorption of … and … by active transport
only portion of nephron that can produce urine that is more … than blood –> important in cases of overhydration

thicker; diluting; mitochondria; sodium; chloride; dilute

compared to beginning of loop of Henle, there is a net … in the volume of filtrate, net … of a lot of water

decrease; reabsorption

in the DCT (distal convoluted tubule), … is reabsorbed along with … and waste products are also secreted

sodium; water

at the collecting duct, more … may be reabsorbed depending on its permeability
collecting ducts response to … and …
everything that stays in collecting duct is …

water
ADH; aldosterone
excreted

kidney can influence …, …, and … balance

blood pressure; blood osmolarity; acid-base balance

kidney:
blood pressure –> through … and …
… prompts reabsorption of isotonic fluid that increases blood … and …
… makes collecting duct more leaky
constriction of … will lead to lower pressure of blood reaching glomeruli, which will lead to … release, helping to raise BP

ADH; aldosterone
aldosterone; volume; pressure
ADH
afferent arterioles; lenin

kidneys & osmoregulation:
osmotic pressure = sucking pressure that draws water into vasculature by …
oncotic pressure = osmotic pressure attributable to …

all dissolved particles

dissolved proteins

kidneys and osmoregulation:
normal blood osmolarity is about … milliosomoles
low blood osmolarity = excretion of …, reabsorption of …
high blood osmolarity = … reabsorption, … excretion

290
excess water; solutes
water; solute

kidneys & pH:

kidneys can selectively excrete either … or …

H+; bicarbonate

layers of the skin (from deepest to most superficial):
… (..)
…
..

hypodermis; subcutaneous
dermis
epidermis

skin is derived from … in embryo

ectoderm

epidermis subdivided into …

strata

strata (deepest to most superficial):
…: contains stem cells, proliferation of keratinocytes, which produce keratin
…: become connected to each other –> site of Langerhans cells
…: keratinocytes die and lose nuclei
…: only present in thick, hairless skin, nearly transparent
…: contains up to several dozen layers of flattened keratinocytes, protective barrier, contains hair and openings for sweat and sebaceous glands

stratum basale 
stratum spinosum 
stratum granulosum 
stratum lucidum 
stratum corneum

…: resistant to damage and protects against injury, water, pathogens

keratin

…: excessive keratin deposition to prevent future damage in areas of repeated strain
.. and … are formed from keratin

calluses

fingernails; hair

…: derived from neutral crest cells in the stratum basale, produce melanin

melanocytes

…: pigment that protects against UV

melanin

melanin passed to …

more active melanocytes = …

keratinocytes

darker skin tones

… cells: special macrophages within the stratum spinosum, antigen-presenting cells

Langerhans

dermis consists of multiple layers:
… layer –> upper layer, loos connective tissue
… layer –> denser, below papillary

papillary

reticular

…, …, and … originate in dermis, as do most sensory receptors

sweat glands; blood vessels; hair follicles

… cells (..): sensory receptors present at epidermal-dermal junction –> deep pressure and texture sensation

merkel; discs

dermis:
.. respond to pain 
... --> light touch 
... --> stretch 
... --> deep pressure and vibration

free nerve endings
Meissner’s corpuscles
Ruffini endings
Pacinian corpuscles

…: connective tissue that connects skin to rest of body; contains fat and fibrous tissue

hyperdermis

thermoregulation achieved by …, …, …, …

sweating; piloerection; vasodilation; vasoconstriction

sweating –> … neurons use … and promote secretion of water with certain ions – evaporates, along with heat
… also occurs to maximize heat loss

postganglionic sympathetic; acetylcholine; arteriolar vasodilation

… muscles contract to cause piloerection –> traps heated air near skin
arterioles …, limiting blood supply reaching skin
shivering – uses …, converted to thermal energy

arrector pili; constrict; ATP

… insulates body:
…
… – much less efficient electron transport chain, more heat energy subsequently released

fat
white fat
brown fat

skin maintains … of the body –> impermeable to … –> none enters or leaves the skin

osmolarity; water

contraction relies on …

calcium ions

skeletal muscle is … –> innervated by … NS

voluntary; somatic

skeletal muscle is striated due to arrangement of … –> repeating units of … and …
… because individual muscle cells fuse in …

sarcomeres; actin; myosin

multinucleated; long rods

skeletal muscle has … and … fibers

red; white

red fibers –> … fibers

high … content

slow-twitch; myoglobin

myoglobin carries … and uses … in a heme group to bind it, the latter thing gives it its red color

oxygen; iron

red fibers contd:
aerobic metabolism –> …
seen more in muscles that … and …. (muscles that support posture)

oxidative phosphorylation

contract slowly; fatigue slowly

white fibers in skeletal muscle –> … fibers
… myoglobin content
seen more in muscles that …, but … as well

fast-twitch;
low
contract rapidly; fatigue rapidly

smooth muscle is …, innervated by …

involuntary; autonomic NS

smooth muscle found in: 
... 
... 
... 
... 
... 
etc

respiratory tree
digestive tract 
bladder
uterus
blood vessel walls

smooth muscle:
single … in center
contain … and … as well but not in a striated pattern
capable of more sustained …

nucleus
actin; myosin;
contractions

smooth muscle contd:

…: constant state of low-level contraction –> seen in blood vessels

tonus

(smooth muscle) …: ability to contract without nervous system input
for smooth muscle, contraction is response to … or other stimuli

myogenic activity; stretch

cardiac muscle is identified separately, but has characteristics of both skeletal and smooth muscle:
mostly …, but some cells have … nuclei
…, innervated by … nervous system
appears …

uninucleated; 2
involuntary; autonomic
striated

cardiac myocytes are connected by … that contain … –> allow for direct flow of ions between cells, for quick and coordinated … and …

intercalated discs; gap junctions; depolarization; contraction

cardiac muscle displays … activity as well –> … initiating electrical impulse for contraction

myogenic; sinoatrial node

epinephrine allows for greater contractility of cardiac muscle by increasing …

intracellular calcium levels

…: basic contractile unit of skeletal muscle

sarcomere

sarcomere:
… filaments: bundles of myosin
… filaments: actin + troponin and tropomyosin

thick

thin

sarcomere:

.. and … help regulate interaction between actin and myosin

troponin; tropomyosin

(sarcomere)

…: anchors actin and myosin filaments, prevents excessive stretching of muscle

titin

(sarcomere) … defines boundaries of each sarcomere
…: runs down center of sarcomere, through the middle of myosin filaments
…: contains exclusively thin filaments
…: contains exclusively thick filaments
…: all of the thick filaments, including its overlap with thin filaments

Z-line
M-line
I-band
H-zone
A-band

(sarcomere) during contraction, .. remains constant in size, while everything else becomes …

A-band; smaller

sarcomeres are attached end-to-end to form …, which are covered by …, a modified ER that has a large concentration of…

myofibirils; sarcoplasmic reticulum; calcium

..: modified cytoplasm outside of SR

sarcoplasm

…: cell membrane of a myocyte

can propagate an action potential and distribute it to all sarcomeres using … which are perpendicular to myofibrils

sarcolemma; transverse tubules

…: muscle cell/muscle fiber

myocyte

myocyte: contains many … in parallel (this is for skeletal muscle)
nuclei are usually found at … of cell

myofibrils; periphery

any myocytes in parallel = …

muscle

contraction is initiated at the … –> where NS and muscle communicates via … (…) neurons

neuromuscular junction; motor; efferent

for muscle contraction:
signal travels to …, which for neuromuscular junctions, can also be called the …
… is released into the synapse and binds to the adjacent sarcolemma to cause …

nerve terminals; motor end plate

acetylcholine; depolarization

for muscle contraction:

each nerve terminal controls

a group of myocytes

for muscle contraction:

nerve terminal + myocytes =

motor unit

for muscle contraction: depolarization triggers action potential that spreads to the …., which allow the action potential to reach the sarcoplasmic reticulum. … is released at this point

t-tubules; Ca2+

for muscle contraction:
calcium binds to subunit in .., changing the conformation of … (these two are bound to one another). this exposes … sites on …

troponin; tropomyosin; myosin binding; actin thin filament

for muscle contraction:

myosin then binds to exposed sites, pulling the actin toward the …, and consequently … the sarcomere

M-line; shortening

for muscle contraction:
myosin is activated by …
… to myosin head releases it from actin
… recocks myosin head so that it can initiate another cross-bridge cycle with an actin filament

ATP hydrolysis
ATP binding
ATP hydrolysis

for muscle contraction:
…. model: repetitive binding and releasing of myosin heads on actin allows for thin filament to slide along thick filament, shortening sarcomere –> this is …

sliding filament; contraction

for muscle contraction:
to allow for muscle relaxation, acetylcholine is degraded in synapse by … –> allows sarcolemma to ..
… is taken up by sarcoplasmic reticulum and ATP … to release it from actin

acetylcholinesterase; repolarize

calcium; binds to myosin

like with neurons, stimuli for muscle must reach a … for a response to occur
…: when all fibers within a muscle contract at the same time

threshold

maximal response

…: response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus
…: time between reaching threshold and onset of contraction –> this is when action potential can spread and calcium can be released

simple twitch

latent period

…: when muscle is exposed to frequent and prolonged stimulation, such as there is little time to relax –> contractions …, … and …

frequency summation

combine; strengthening; lasting longer

…: when contractions are so frequent that muscle cannot relax at all –> can lead to muscle fatigue

tetanus

two supplemental energy reserves in muscle besides normal oxidative phosphorylation:
… created by transferring phosphate group from ATP to … during times of rest. rxn can be reversed during muscle use to quickly generate ATP
… can be used to sustain aerobic metabolism

creatine phosphate; creatine

myoglobin

two supplemental energy reserves in muscle besides normal oxidative phosphorylation:
white muscle fibers must use … and … to make ATP since they don’t have as much …

glycolysis; fermentation; mitochondria

…: difference between amount of oxygen needed by muscles and actual amount present

oxygen debt

…: internal, cannot protect soft tissues

endoskeleton

…: external, must be shed and regrown to accomton modate growth

exoskeleton

…: provides basic central framework for body
…
…
…
… (small bone in anterior neck used for swallowing)

axial skeleton 
skull 
vertebral column 
ribcage
hyoid bone

… skeleton: bones of the limbs, pectoral girdle (… and …), pelvis

appendicular; scapula; clavicle

bones of the limbs: 
upper limbs: 
... 
.. and ... 
... 
... 
...

lower limbs: 
... 
... 
... 
... 
... 
...

humerus 
radius and ulna 
carpals 
metacarpals
phalanges

femur
tibia 
fibula
tarsals
metatarsals
phalanges

…: connective tissue derived from embryonic …

bone; mesoderm

bone strength comes from … –> dense and strong

compact bone

…./… bone: lattice structure, consists of bony points known as trabeculae

spongy; cancellous

cavities between trabeculae are filled with …
…: filled with hematopoietic stem cells
…: mainly fat, inactive

bone marrow
red bone marrow
yellow marrow

bones in appendicular skeleton are usually …

long bones

bones in appendicular skeleton are usually long bones:

long bones have cylindrical shafts –> …, swell at each end to form .., which terminate in…

diaphyses; metaphyses; epiphyses

bones in appendicular skeleton are usually long bones:
outermost part of bone –> … bone
inner portion of bone –> … bone
diaphyses and metaphyses are full of …

compact
spongy
bone marrow

bones in appendicular skeleton are usually long bones:
epiphyses uses spongy core for effective ….. at joints
… at internal edge –> site of … growth, these seal at puberty

force and pressure dispersion;

epiphyseal (growth) plate; longitudinal

bones in appendicular skeleton are usually long bones:
…: fibrous sheath that surrounds long bone to protect it and act as site for muscle attachment
some of these cells can differentiate into … cells –> necessary for bone growth and repair

periosteum

bone-forming

…: attach muscle to bone

…: hold bones together at joints

tendons

ligaments

…: contributes to strength of compact bone, has both organic and inorganic components

bone matrix

(bone matrix) organic:
…
…
other …

collagen
glycoproteins
peptides

(bone matrix) inorganic: 
... 
.. 
... 
these harden to form ... crystals

calcium
phosphate
hydroxide
hydroxyapatite

(bone matrix) … (e.g. sodium, magnesium, potassium) also stored in bone

minerals

(bone matrix) structural units: …./…. systems

osteons; Haversian

(bone matrix) osteons contain concentric circles of bony matrix called … surrounding central channel –>
longitudinal channels = …
transverse channels = …

lamellae;
Haversian canals
Volkmann’s canals

(bone matrix) canals contain …, …, and …

blood vessels; nerve fibers; lymph vessels

(bone matrix) …: spaces between lamellar rings that house mature bone cells known as …
interconnected by … –> allow for exchange of nutrients/waste between osteocytes and Haversian and Volkmann’s canals

lacunae; osteocytes

canaliculi

… build bone

osteoblasts

…: polynucleated bone macrophages; resorb bone

releases ingredients of bones such as … and …

osteoclasts; calcium; phosphate

parathyroid hormone promotes … and thus increases … and … concs in the blood

bone resorption; calcium; phosphate

… promotes bone resorption –> encourage growth of new, stronger bone

vitamin D

…: promotes bone formation and consequently lowers calcium concs

calcitonin

…: has elastic matrix called chondrin, secreted by …
present in adults in external ear, nose, walls of … and …, …, and joints
… ( no blood/lymphatic vessels) and is not …, unlike bone

cartilage; chrondrocytes
larynx; trachea; intervertebral discs;
avascular; innervated

most bones are made by … into bone –> ..

hardening cartilage; endochondral ossification

…: undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue (… tissue) is transformed into bone
occurs in skull

intramembranous ossification; mesenchymal

joints: also made of … tissue

connective

…: bones that are fused to form sutures/similar fibrous joints –> primary in head to anchor bones of skull together

immovable

movable joints: … joints, … joints, etc

hinge; ball-and-socket

movable jointes:
allow bones to shift relative to one another
strengthened by …
consist of a … that encloses the joint/articular cavity
synovium secretes … to lubricate movement
… coats articular surfaces so that impact is restricted to the lubricated joint cartilage instead of the bone

ligaments
synovial capsule
synovial fluid
articular cartilage

contraction of muscle attached to two bones will cause one of the bones to move:

origin: end of muscle with …. to bone (tends to be the … connection)
insertion: end with … to bone (tends to be … connection)

larger attachment; proximal

smaller attachment; distal

… pairs: one muscle relaxes while another contracts

occurs in arm –> biceps and triceps

antagonistic

…: muscles work together to accomplish the same function

synergistic

…: decreases angle across a joint

flexor muscle

…: increases/straightens angle across joint

extensor

…: moves a part of the body away from the midline

abductor

…: moves body part towards the midline

adductor

… and …: motions that occur in limbs
…: rotates the axis of the limb toward the midline
…: rotates the axis of the limb away from the midline

medial and lateral rotation
medial rotator
lateral rotator

every human has two copies of each chromosome: …

exception: X gene in males

homologues

…: when only 1 allele is present for a given gene –> as it is for X chromosomes in males

hemizygous

…: when there is more than one dominant allele for a given gene
AB blood type

codominance

…: heterozygote has a phenotype that is an intermediate between the two homozygous genotypes

incomplete dominance

…: proportion of the population with a given genotype who actually express the phenotype

penetrance

penetrance:
…. penetrance: 100 % of individuals with an allele exhibit its phenotype
… penetrance: most, but not all, with the allele exhibit its phenotype
… penetrance, … penetrance, …

full 
high 
reduced
low
nonpenetrance

…: different manifestations of the same genotype across the population
…: all individuals with a given genotype express the same phenotype
…: individuals with the same genotype may have different phenotypes

expressivity
constant
variable

mendel’s first law of segregation:
genes exist in alternative forms as …
organism has 2 alleles for each gene
two alleles …, such that the haploid gametes only have one copy of each allele
if an organism has two different alleles, one will be dominant and the other will be recessive –> … and … are exceptions

alleles
segregate during meiosis
codominance; incomplete dominance

Mendel’s second law of independent assortment:
inheritance of one gene is … of another gene
this is due to … during meiosis which pretty much randomizes what genes a future child would have
… are an exception

independent of inheritance;
recombination
linked genes

Griffith’s experiment on mice revealed that there was some … that allowed nonvirulent strains to transform into the virulent strains that killed the mice

transforming principle

avery, macleod, and mccarty confirmed the idea of the transforming principle by isolated subcellular components of the bacteria and seeing which would cause the transformation to occur –> transformation didn’t occur when … was used
conclusion: transforming factor = …

DNAse; DNA

hershey and chase labeled bacteriophages with … (in proteins but not DNA) and another group with … (in DNA but not proteins)
bacteriophages inject their genetic material into bacteria and leave protein capsides
infected cells were labeled with .., indicating that … is the source of genetic material

radioactive sulfur; radioactive phosphorus
radioactive phosphorus
DNA

…: all alleles that exist within a species

gene pool

..: elements that can insert and remove themselves from the genome
if inserted into coding mutation, will be a mutation that will disrupt the gene

transposon

…: when one nucleotide in DNA is swapped for another
…: change in nucleotide has no effect on final protein synthesized –> most common when mutation is in the third nucleotide in a codon because there is … in the genetic code
…: mutation results in substitution of one amino acid for another in final protein
…: when the change in nucleotide results in early termination of a protein by substituting an amino acid with a stop codon

point mutations
silent; degeneracy
missense
nonsense

.. mutations: insertions/deletions
shift the reading frame
can lead to changes in amino acid sequence/early termination

frameshift

… mutations: larger scale mutations in which large segments of DNA are affected

chromosomal

chromosomal mutations:
…: large segment of DNA is lost from a chromosome
…: segment of DNA is copied multiple times in the genome
…: segment of DNA is reversed in the chromosome
…: segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another
…: segment of DNA from one chromosome is swapped with segment of DNA from another

deletion 
duplication 
inversion 
insertion 
translocation

…: defects in genes required for metabolism

can lead to buildup of metabolites in various pathways

inborn errors of metabolism

…: flow of genes between species
… offspring
can result in net flow of genes from one species to the other if offspring is viable and fertile

genetic leakage

hybrid

…: changes in composition of gene pool due to change

… effect in small populations

genetic drift

greater

genetic drift:
…: small population is in reproductive isolation from the rest of the population
…: drastically and suddenly reduce size of population available for breeding –> chances of … increases
… genetic diversity

founder effect
bottlenecks
inbreeding
reduces

…: loss of genetic variation that reduces population fitness

inbreeding depression

…/…: introduction of unrelated individuals into a breeding group
can increase variation and fitness

outbreeding; outcrossing

…: cross in which one trait is being studied

monohybrid

…/…: individuals being crossed

…/…: offspring of P generation

parent/P generation

filial/F generation

…: used to determine an unknown genotype by crossing the organism with an unknown genotype with an organism known to be homozygous recessive
also called …

test cross

back crosses

…: accounts for inheritance of two different genes

dihybrid cross

… (…) traits:
females can be homozygous/heterozygous
males are hemizygous
e.g. hemophilia

sex-linked; X-linked

genes that are very close together on a chromosome are less likely to be … during …

separated from each other; crossing over

…: likelihood that two alleles are separated from each other during crossing over

recombination frequency

recombination frequency (theta) is approximately proportional to ... on a chromosome 
tightly linked genes have recomb frequencies close to ...% and weakly linked genes have recomb frequencies approaching ...

distance between genes

0; 50%

…: represents relative distance between genes on a chromosome
…/…: 1% chance of recombination occurring between two genes

genetic map

map unit; centimorgan

…: how often allele appears in a population

allele frequency

five tenets of hardy-weinberg equilibrium:
population is very … –> no …
no …
… –> no …
no …
no … –> all the genes are equally successful at reproducing

large; genetic drift 
mutation 
random mating; sexual selection 
migration 
differential success

P + q = 1 and p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
… is dominant, … is recessive
first equation is for … frequencies
second equation is for … frequencies

p; q
allelic
genotypic

tenets of natural selection:
organisms produce offspring, few of which survive to …
chance variations within population may be … if they confer advantage, they are favorable
those with more favorable variations are more likely to survive and reproduce –> have …
fitness directly related to relative … of the individual to the next generation

reproductive maturity
heritable
increased fitness
genetic contribution

…/..: integrates genetic inheritance and changes to gene pool with Darwin’s original theory

modern-synthesis model; neo-Darwinism

modern-synthesis model:
when mutations/recombination results in favorable change, they are more likely to be passed on to next generation –> …
…: measure of an organism’s success in a population –> … of offspring, …, and ability of the offspring to then …

differential reproduction

inclusive fitness; number; success in supporting offspring; support others

modern-synthesis model:

inclusive fitness promotes idea that … can improve fitness and success of species as a whole

altruistic behavior

modern-synthesis model:

…: changes in some species occur in rapid bursts rather than evenly over time

punctuated equilibrium

… selection keeps phenotypes within a specific range by selecting against extremes

stabilizing

…. selection: adaptive pressure leads to emergence and dominance of an initially extreme phenotype

directional

… selection: two extremes selected over the norm

facilitated by existence of …: naturally occurring differences in form between members of the same population

disruptive

polymorphisms

…: describes the rapid rise of different species from a common ancestor
allows for various species to occupy different niches

adaptive radiation

…: specific environment, including habitat, available resources, and predators, for which a species can be specifically adapted

niche

adaptive radiation

favored by …./… of … groups of the ancestral species

environmental changes; isolation of small groups

geographic isolation can lead to … in that it can lead to … as genetic differences begin to accumulate between the separated populations

speciation; reproductive isolation

... mechanisms of isolation prevent formation of the zygote completely: 
... 
... 
... 
... 
...

prezygotic
temporal 
ecological 
behavioral 
reproductive 
gametic

… mechanisms allow for gamete fusion but yield either nonviable or sterile offspring

postzygotic

postzygotic mecahnisms:
hybrid …: zygote that can’t develop to term
hybrid …: hybrid that can’t reproduce
hybrid …: first generation is viable and fertile, but second generation is inviable or infertile

inviability
sterility
breakdown

three patterns of evolution:
…: independent development of dissimilar characteristics in two+ lineages sharing a common ancestor
… evolution: related species evolve in similar ways in response to analogous environmental selection pressures –> share a common ancestor
… evolution: independent development of similar characteristics in two or more lineages not sharing a recent common ancestor

divergent
parallel
convergent

… model: evolutionists correlate degree of genomic similarity with amount of time since two species split off from the same common ancestor –> more similar the genomes, the more recently the two species …

molecular clock; separated from each other

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