Kaplan Bio Contd. Flashcards
circulatory system:
…
…
…
heart
blood vessels
blood
vasculature
…
…
…
arteries
capillaries
veins
heart has four chambers made predominantly of .. muscle –> …, …, .., …
cardiac right atria left atria right ventricle left ventricle
… deliver deoxygenated blood to the right side of the heart. … bring that blood from right ventricle to the lungs where they are reoxygenated
vena cava; pulmonary arteries
… brings reoxygenated blood from lungs to the left ventricle and then out through the aorta to the rest of the body
pulmonary veins
heart can be through of as two pumps supporting two different circulations:
… + … = … circulation
… + … = .. circulation
right side; pulmonary arteries; pulmonary
left side; pulmonary veins; systemic
… are thin walled structures that contract to move blood into the ventricles
atria
… contract to send blood through rest of circulatory system
ventricles
atria are separated from ventricles by …:
valve between right atrium and right ventricle –> … (…) valve
valve between left atrium and left ventricle –> … (..) valve
atrioventricular valves
tricuspid; three leaflet
mitral; bicuspid
ventricles are separated from vasculature by … valves:
valve between right ventricle and pulmonary circulation –> … valve
valve between left ventricle and aorta –> … valve
these types of valves have ..
semilunar
pulmonary
aortic
three leaflets
left heart is more muscular than right heart because it must …, since blood coming from left ventricle has to circulate through entire body
contract more forcibly
electrical impulses in the heart originate at the … at a rate of ..-… signals per min (which dictates normal adult heartrate), then to … to … and its branches, to …
sinoatrial node; 60-100; atrioventricular node; bundle of His; Purkinje fibers
… from SA node causes atria to contract at the same time
atrial … (contraction) increases … to force . more blood than would passively travel into the ventricles –> … (about ..-…% of cardiac output)
signal at AV node is delayed to allow ventricles to … when signal travels down His to fibers, ventricles can …
depolarization wave
systole; atrial pressure; atrial kick; 5-30%
fill up; contract
bundle of His and branches is imbedded in the … –> the wall between the ventricles
interventricular septum
muscle cells of heart are connected by …, whose cells are connected by … to allow for coordinated ventricular contraction
intercalated discs; gap junctions
circulatory system under … control
sympathetic increases … and …
parasympathetic, by way of …, slows it down
autonomic
rate; contractility
vagus nerve
…: ventricular contraction, closure of AV valves
systole
…: heart is relaxed, semilunar valves are closed, blood from atria fills ventricles
diastole
… of the walls of the large arteries allows for blood pressure to be maintained during diastole. during diastole, these arteries now have a smaller volume (bc they are no longer stretched by blood flowing rapidly through it), and thus pressure …
elasticity; increases
…: total blood volume pumped by a ventricle in a minute –> product of … (…) and … (…)
cardiac output; heart rate (beats per min); stroke volume (volume of blood pumped per beat)
for humans, cardiac output tends to be about … L per min
… increases cardiac output
… decreases cardiac output
5
sympathetic
parasympathetic
major arteries (e.g. coronary, carotid, subclavian, renal) divide bloodflow from .. toward different …
aorta; peripheral tissues
arteries branch into …, then …, which goes into …, then …
arterioles; capillaries; venules; veins
blood vessels are all lined with … cells, which have 3 functions:
…/…
allow … to travel to tissue when a pathogen is present/during inflammatory response
release …
endothelial
vasodilation; vasoconstriction
WBCs
clotting factors
arteries have more .. than veins, capillaries have …
smooth muscle; no smooth muscle
arteries are very muscular and elastic –> much … to blood flow
this is partly why left heart has to generate much higher pressures –> …
resistance; overcome resistance
capillaries allow for … from circulatory system to tissues and vice versa. also allow for exchange of …
exchange of materials; endocrines ignals
veins can … to accommodate larger quantities of blood, and at any given moment may hold … volume of blood. despite this, … between veins and arteries is the same
stretch; 3/4; cardiac output
since blood flow in veins tends to go against gravity, there must be a way to push blood forward
… to prevent back flow –>
back flow can cause … (… veins)
… pushes blood forward as well –> must be mobile for this. being immobile over extended periods of time leads to …
valves; varicose veins; distended
skeletal muscle contraction; blood clots
mostly, blood only travels through … before it returns to the heart. there are three …, though, in which it travels through two:
one capillary bed; portal systems
hepatic portal system: capillary beds in … –> capillary beds in .. –> …
walls of gut; liver; heart
hypophyseal portal system:
capillary beds in … –> beds in … to allow for paracrine secretion –> ..
hypothalamus; anterior pituitary; heart
renal portal system: blood leaves … through … –> capillary network in … –> …
glomerulus; efferent arteriole; vasa recta; heart
plasma: liquid portion of blood, contains …, …, …, …, …
nutrients; salts; respiratory gases; hormones; blood proteins
cellular portion of blood;
…, …, and …
erythrocytes; leukocytes; platelets
…: red blood cell, specialized for oxygen transport, contains about 250 molecules of hemoglobin
erythrocyte
hemoglobin can bind … molecules of oxygen
each RBC can cary about … molecules of oxygen
RBCs are … –> allows them to travel through tiny capillaries and increase surface area for more gas exchange
four; 1 billion; biconcave
mature RBCs lack ..
lack of … in RBCs prevents use of oxygen for …
organelles; mitochondria; oxidative phosphorylation
RBCs rely on … for ATP and produce … –> undergo …
glycolysis; lactic acid; anaerobic fermentation
… measure amount of hemoglobin as grams/deciliter
… - … for males
… - … for females
hemoglobin count
- 5; 17.5
- 0; 16.0
…measures percent of RBCs in a blood sample
…-…% for males
…-…% for females
hematocrit
41; 53
36; 46
…: WBCs, comprise less than 1% of blood volume
leukocytes
(leukocytes) …: the “phils”
…, …, …
granulocytes;
neutrophils; eosinophils; basophils
(leukocytes) granulocytes contain … in their cytoplasm that has chemicals that are toxic to invaders
involved in … rxns, …, … formation, and destruction of … and …
granules
inflammatory; allergies; pus formation; bacteria; parasites
(leukocytes) …: the “cytes”
… and …
agranulocytes
lymphocytes; monocytes
(leukocytes) agranulocytes:
lymphocytes conduct … immune response –> targeted fight against particular pathogens
mature in bone marrow = … cells
mature in thymus = … cells
specific;
B
T
(leukocytes) agranulocytes:
monocytes: …
in organs: known as …
phagocytize foreign matter
macrophages
…/…: cell fragments/shards released from cells in bone marrow known as .. –> assist in blood clotting
thrombocytes; platelets
megakaryocytes
…: production of blood cells and platelets
…: secreted by kidney, stimulates mainly RBC development
…: secreted by liver and kidney and stimulates mainly platelet development
hetaopoiesis
erythropoietin
thrombopoietin
RBCs have surface antigens –> … antigens and ..
ABO; Rh factor
ABO antigens:
A and B are … –> if expressed together yields AB genotype
whole blood is never given in a transfusion –> …, without plasma, so … don’t need to be considered
codominant
packed RBCs; plasma antigens
ABO antigens:
if wrong blood type is given, … may occur
antibodies to other blood types may be developed bc … may have proteins that match A and B alleles –> acts as source of exposure that allows for development of appropriate antibodies
hemolysis
E. coli
Rh-positive or Rh-negative refers to presence or absence of an allele …
… is dominant
D
Rh-positive
for mothers that are Rh-negative and have babies that are Rh+, during birth, … against Rh+ will develop. this isn’t an issue for the first baby, but if second baby is also Rh+, and antibodies against Rh+ travel through the placenta, there may be … of fetal cells –> …
antibodies; hemolysis; erythroblastosis fetalis
erythroblastosis fetalis issue doesn’t really happen with ABO blood types, bc these antibodies are of class …, which don’t really cross the placenta
IgM
… is a measure of force per unit area exerted on the wall of the blood vessels
blood pressure
much like an electromotive force (voltage) drives a current through a given electrical resistance, the pressure gradient across the circulatory system drives … through a given …
cardiac output; vascular resistance
pressure differential across circulation = … * total …
cardiac output; vascular resistance
the … a blood vessel, the more resistance it offers. the larger the … of a blood vessel, the less resistance it offers
longer; cross-sectional area
blood pressure is regulated using … in the walls of the vasculature
baroreceptors
BP increased by stimulation of …, by release of … when blood osmolarity is high, or release of … if there is low perfusion to juxtaglomerular cells (which would indicate that blood isn’t pumping sufficiently to further parts of the body)
sympathetic nervous system; ADH; aldosterone
BP can be decreased by decreasing … impulses, permitting … can also be by release of … by the heart
sympathetic; relaxation of vasculature; atrial natriuretic peptide
oxygen is carried by hemoglobin. hemoglobin has 4 …, each of which has a prosthetic … group that binds to an oxygen molecule
cooperative subunit; heme
some oxygen diffuses into the blood and dissolves into the …, but this amount is negligible compared to the amount bound to hemoglobin
plasma
…: percent of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen
oxygen saturation
when oxygen binds to one subunit of hemoglobin, hgb goes from … to … state and induces this change in the other subunits to increase their affinity to oxygen –> … binding
… regulation that results in classic … oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve
tense; relaxed; cooperative
allosteric; sigmoidal
most of CO2 exists in blood as the …, not really dissolved in plasma or transported by hemoglobin
bicarbonate ion
when CO2 enters a RBC, … catalyzes the formation of …, which then dissociates
carbonic anhydrase; carbonic acid
pH can have allosteric effects on oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve –> lower pH means … hemoglobin affinity for oxygen
lower
lower hemoglobin affinity shows … in oxyhemoglobin curve –> … effect
shift to right; Bohr
causes of a right shift of the oxyhemoglobin curve: exercise is the right thing to do (mnemonic). the following occurs during exercise:
increased …
increased … concentration
increased …
also increased .., side product of glycolysis
partial pressure of CO2
proton
temperature
2,3-BPG
carbs and amino acids are absorbed into the capillaries of the small intestine and enter systemic circulation via the
hepatic portal system
fats are absorbed into … in the small intestine and enter systemic circulation via the …
lacteals; thoracic duct
wastes travel to … and are filtered or secreted for elimination
kidney
…: cells surrounding the blood vessels
interstitium
…: force per unit area that the blood exerts against the vessel walls (blood pressure)
pushes fluid … and …
hydrostatic pressure
out of the bloodstream; into the interstitium
…/…: pressure generated by solutes as they attempt to draw water into the bloodstream
most of it is attributable to …
pulls fluid …
osmotic/oncotic pressure
plasma proteins
into vessels
at arteriole end of capillary bed, … pressure is greater than …
at venule end, … pressure is greater than …
hydrostatic; oncotic
oncotic; hydrostatic
hydrostatic pressure pushes fluid … of vessels and is dependent on … driven by the heart and the elastic arteries. osmotic pressure pulls fluid … and is dependent on the …
out; blood pressure; back into the vessels; number of particles dissolved in the plasma
…: hydrostatic and oncotic pressure
starling forces
…: accumulation of excess fluid in the interstitial fluid
edema
…: lymphatic fluid
returned to central circulatory system by the …
lymph; thoracic duct
movement of solutes and fluid at the capillary level is governed by …, just like movement of CO2 and O2 in the lungs
pressure differentials
…: coagulation factors and platelets; prevent/minimize blood loss
clots
damaged endothelium exposes underlying … tissue, which contains … and … –> when platelets come into contact with .. they begin to aggregate
connective; collagen; tissue factor; collagen
coagulation factors sense … and initiate an …
tissue factor; activation cascade
coagulation:
… is activated to form … by … this converts … to … which forms small fibers that aggregate and cross slink into a woven structure that captures … and … to form a clot
prothrombin; thrombin; thromboplastin; fibrinogen; fibrin; red blood cells; platelets
a clot is broken down by …, which derives from …
plasmin; plasminogen
… immunity: defenses that are always active against infection –> … immunity
innate; nonspecific
innate immunity includes … molecules and … which can activate an … response, secreting … that trigger an influx of immune cells from the blood. some of these recruits are more …
antimicrobial; phagocytes; inflammatory; cytokines; phagocytes
… immunity/… immunity –> target a specific pathogen, … to act, but maintains … of an infection to mount faster attack upon subsequent exposure
adaptive; specific
slower; memory
adaptive immunity:
… and … cells. activated B-cells secrete … that bind to … T-cells recognize .. and can help activate … cells and other … cells or can directly …
B; T; antibodies; antigens; antigens; B cells; T cells; attack infected cells
… produces all of the leukocytes
bone marrow
… is location of B-cell storage and activation. B-cells turn into … to produce antibodies. when they leave spleen, they are … but …, since they haven’t been exposed to antigen yet –> .. immunity
spleen; plasma cells; mature; naive; humoral
T-cells mature in … and are agents of … immunity –> coordinate immune system and directly kill infected cells
thymus; cell-mediated
…: place for immune cells to communicate and mount an attack –> B-cells can be activated here too
lymph nodes
… tissue: immune tissue close to digestive system
… and … in the head, … in the small intestine, lymphoid aggregates in the …
gut-associated lymphoid
tonsils; adenoids; Peyer’s patches; appendix
granulocytes and agranulocytes both derive from …
hematopoietic stem cells
first line of defense is the .. (…)
acts as a physical barrier
also contains … –> antibacterial enzymes
… has antimicrobial properties
skin; integument
defensins
sweat
… involved in nonspecific/innate immunity:
stomach produces … that kills most pathogens
beneficial bacteria in the gut act as … of other pathogenic bacteria
GI tract;
acid; competitive excluders
… system: nonspecific defense against bacteria:
… pathway –> binding of an antibody to a pathogen
… pathway –> does not require antibodies
complement
classical
alternative
complements … in … of bacteria so that they are …
punch holes; cell wall; osmotically unstable
…: prevent viral replication and dispersion –> decrease production of viral and cellular proteins in nearby cells and decrease … of these cells
interferons; permeability
interferons also upregulate … and …
they are produced by …
… system that a cell has been infected –> interferes with ability of virus to …
MHC I; MHC II; infected cells; warning; further infect
…: derive from monocytes and become a permanent, resident population in a tissue
… invaders, … invader, presents …of the invader using …
release …: stimulate inflammation and recruit additional immune cells
macrophages
phagocytizes; enzymatically digests; peptide antigens; MHC II
cytokines
…: binds to a pathogenic peptide and presents it on the cell surface
major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
MHC class I: presented by all … cells
any protein produced within a cell can be loaded onto these and presented on the cell surface for immune system to be able to monitor cellular health
… pathway –> binds antigens from inside the cell
invaded cells can be killed by …
nucleated;
endogenous
cytotoxic T-lymphocytes
MHC class II: presented by … cells such as …, … cells in the skin, some … cells and some activated … cells
antigen-presenting; macrophages; dendritic; B; epithelial
MHC class II: ... pathway --> antigens originated outside the cell
exogenous
marophages and dendritic cells have … receptors –> can recognize category of invader to elicit production of the correct … to recruit the right type of immune cells
best described of these is the … receptor
pattern recognition receptors (PRR)
toll-like
… cells: nonspecific lymphocyte that recognizes downregulation of MHC caused by a virus and induces … in infected cells
can also protect against …, since these cells may downregulate MHC
natural killer; apoptosis; cancer
…: most abundant leukocyte and short-lived
phagocytes that can track bacteria via … and can detect … bacteria – bacteria that have been marked with an … from a B-cell
stalk and kill
neutrophils
chemotaxis; opsonized; antibody
dead neutrophil collections = …
pus
…: bright orange granules, involved in allergic rxns and parasitic infections
release large amount of … –> increased … and … of blood vessels, allowing additional immune cells to move into tissue
eosinophils; histamine; vasodilation; leakiness
eosinophils:
inflammation is effective against extracellular pathogens such as .., …, and …
bacteria; fungi; parasites
… and … cells are involved in allergic reaction and release large amounts of histamines in response to allergens, leading to …
basophils; mast; inflammation
antibodies =
immunoglobulins
… = lymphatic fluid
chyle
antibodies can be present on the … or …
cell surface; secreted into body fluids
for antibodies secreted into body fluids, there are three main responses:
can attract leukocytes to phagocytize the antigens –> …
can cause pathogens to clump together such that the clump can be phagocytized –> …
can … the pathogen
opsonization
agglutination
neutralize
for cell-surface antibodies, a B-cell will … and …, … and forming … and … cells
bind; activate; proliferating; plasma; memory
…: exocytosis of granule contents that occurs when an antigen binds to antibodies on the surface of a mast cell
degranulation
antibodies are Y-shaped and have two identical … domains and two identical … domains. they have … sites on the tips of the Y, at the end of the .. region
light; heavy; antigen-binding; variable
B-cells undergo … of the antigen-binding region to match the antigen –> the ones that have the highest affinity for the antigen survive –> …
hypermutation; clonal selection
… region of the antibody is what immune cells have receptors for, and consequently initiate … when recognized
constant; complement cascades
antibodies have five different isotopes: .., …, …, …, … –> …: cells change which isotope of an antibody they produce when stimulated by specific cytokines
IgM; IgD; IgG: IgE; IgA; isotope switching
plasma cells produce large amounts of … but memory B-cells remain in the … until reexposure
initial activation = … response, takes about …-… days
upon reexposure, when memory cells are activated –> … response
immune memory is basis for vaccinations
antibodies; lymph node
primary; 7-10
secondary
T-cells mature in thymus and undergo … and …. selection
…: maturing only cells that can respond to presentation of antigen on MHC
…: apoptosis in cells that are self-reactive (activated by proteins produced by organism itself)
maturation induced by …
positive; negative
positive
negative
thymosin
T-cells also undergo …, such that those with highest affinity for antigen proliferate
clonal selection
(three types of T-cells)
helper-T cells –> … T cells
secrete … to recruit other immune cells and increase their activity
respond to antigens presented on … molecules, bc these are attached to immune cells that are antigen-presenting –> allows for amplification of immune response
CD4+
lymphokines
MHC II
(three types of T-cells) cytotoxic T-cells –> … T-cells
directly kill virally infected cells by inducing …
respond to antigens presented on …, bc these are attached to infected cells
CD8+;
apoptosis
MHC I
(three types of T-cells) …/… T-cells –> also CD4
different from helper, because they have …
… once infection has been contained
turn off … to prevent autoimmune disease –> …
suppressor; regulatory
Foxp3
suppress immune response
self-reactive lymphocytes; self-tolerance
… are also generated during an immune response
memory T-cells
five types of infectious pathogens: ... ... ... ... ... (no immune defense for this one)
bacteria virus fungi parasites prions
bacterial (extracellular pathogen) infections:
macrophages engulf bacteria and release … also present antigens via .. –> attract more inflammatory cells
… cells are activated and released histamine, resulting in increased leakiness of capillaries which augments immune cells’ ability to …
inflammatory mediators; MHC II
mast cells; travel to affected tissue
bacterial (extracellular pathogen) infections:
dendritic cells leave affected tissue and present antigens to … and … to initiate their responses
mainly … response is activated for T-cells –> … and …
… is helper cell that releases interferon gamma to activate macrophages and increase their ability to kill bacteria
… is helper cell that activates B-cells –> more common in parasitic infections
B-cells; T-cells
CD4+; Th1; Th2
Th1
Th2
viral (intracellular pathogen) infections:
infected cell produces … and present antigens via …
… T-cells will induce apoptosis in infected cells, or, if MHC has been downregulated, … will induce apoptosis
interferons; MHC-I
CD8+; natural killer cells
…: proteins and carbs present on the cell surface that indicate to the immune system that the cell is non-threatening and shouldn’t be attacked
…: cases where self is recognized as foreign
self-antigens
autoimmunity
… reactions: immune system recognizes foreign antigen as dangerous when it isn’t (allergies) as well as autoimmune rxns
negative selection for T-cells kills T-cells that respond to self-antigens
hypersensitivity
B-cells that respond to self-antigens are also eliminated before they can
leave bone marrow
… can have immunosuppressive qualities and can be used to treat autoimmune diseases
glucocorticoids
… immunity: immune system is stimulated to produce antibodies against a specific pathogen
natural/artificial
artificial = …
active
vaccines
… immunity: transfer of antibodies to an individual
temporary, bc the … that produce the antibodies are not being transferred
this occurs during pregnancy as antibodies are transferred across the placenta
can be done artificially too
passive; plasma cells
lymphatic system is a type of … system –> made of one way vessels that grow larger as they move toward … of the body
vessels contain … and most join to comprise the … which delivers lymph into the …
circulatory center lymph thoracic duct left subclavian vein
lymph nodes contain a …, an …, and a …
function as space for cells of immune system to be exposed to possible pathogens
act like a .. for immune cells
lymphatic channel; artery; vein
classroom
at arterial end of capillary beds, hydrostatic pressure is higher than oncotic, so some fluid remains in tissues. … drain these tissues and return the fluid to the bloodstream. these vessels function for …
lymphatic vessels; equalization of fluid distribution
…: key plasma protein
albumin
lymphatic system transports … from digestive system into the bloodstream
…: small lymphatic vessels located in the center of each villus in the small intestine. fats enter these for transport as …
fats
lacteals
chylomicrons
lymphatic fluid carrying chylomicrons is …
chyle
lymph nodes act as a location for antigen presenting cells and … to interact
…: collections of mature B-cells in the lymph nodes
lymphocytes
germinal centers
…: oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for energy
intracellular digestion
…: process by which nutrients are obtained from food
extracellular digestion
…: runs from the mouth to the anus and is sectioned off by sphincters
alimentary canal
…: circular smooth muscles around the canal that can contract to allow compartmentalization of function
sphincters
…: breakdown of food into its substituent components
…: physical breakdown of larger food particles into smaller food particles –> no breaking of chemical bonds
…: enzymatic cleavage of chemical bonds
digestion
mechanical digestion
chemical digestion
…: transport of products of digestion into the circulatory system for distribution to cells and tissues
absorption
digestive tract begins with …, to .., to .., to .., to …, to …, to …
oral cavity pharynx esophagus stomach small intestine large intestine rectum
…, …, …, and … help provide enzymes and lubrication to assist digestion
salivary glands
pancreas
live
gallbladder
… nervous system: 100 million neurons that govern function of GI system
present in walls of digestive tract and trigger …
can function independently of … and …
regulated by …
… stimulates digestive activities
enteric peristalsis spinal cord; brain autonomic NS parasympathetic NS
all of the glands of the body except the sweat glands are innervated by the …
parasympathetic NS
ADH and aldosterone trigger sensation of …, leading to …
thirst; fluid consumption
… and … (secreted by stomach and pancreas) trigger sensation of hunger
glucagon; ghrelin
… and … stimulate feelings of satiety
leptin; cholecystokinin
…: breaking up of large food particles by using the teeth, tongue, and lips
increases .. ratio, creating more .. for enzymatic digestion
also ensures that there won’t be any … risk from large food particles by breaking these down
mechanical
mastication;
surface area: volume; surface area
obstructive
… produce saliva:
aid mechanical digestion by … and … food
presence of food in oral cavity increases … stimulation of these glands such that salivation occurs. can also be triggered by … and … of food
salivary glands
moistening; lubricating
parasympathetic
sight; scent
salivary glands contain … (…) and …
… hydrolyzes starch
… hydrolyzes lipids
salivary amylase; ptyalin; lipase
salivary amylase
lipase
muscular tongue in mouth forms food into a … that is forced back into the pharynx and is swallowed
bolus
pharynx can be divided into three parts:
…: behind nasal cavity
…: at the back of the mouth
…: above the vocal cords
… prevents food from entering larynx during swallowing
no mechanical/chemical digestion in pharynx
nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngopharynx
top third of esophagus is composed of …, bottom third is composed of …, middle third is mix –> top of esophagus is under … control (…), the bottom is under …. control (…)
skeletal muscle; smooth muscle; somatic motor; voluntary; autonomic; involuntary
… (…) occurs when peristalsis occurs in the reverse direction
emesis; vomiting
upper esophageal sphincter between … and …
pharynx; esophagus
lower esophageal sphincter/ … sphincter: between … and …
cardiac; esophagus; stomach
3 main energy sources: …, …, …
carbs; fats; proteins
no mechanical/chemical digestion in esophagus besides continued … initiated in mouth by salivary enzymes
enzymatic activity
stomach has a capacity of about …
2 L
stomach has thick … to prevent autodigestion from acids/enzymes in the stomach
mucous layer
stomach has four main anatomical divisions
… and … –> contain gastric glands
… and … –> contain pyloric glands
fundus; body
antrum; pylorus
internal curvature of the stomach is the … external curvature is the …
lesser curvature; greater curvature
…: folds in lining of stomach
rugae
gastric glands regulated by parasympathetic NS via the … –> activated by sight, taste, and smell of food
vagus nerve
gastric glands secretes … cells, … cells and … cells
mucous; chief; parietal
… cells: produce bicarbonate-rich mucous that protects muscular wall of stomach
mucous
…: secretions from chief and parietal cells
gastric juice
chief cells produce …, which is activated by … to become .., which cleaves peptide bonds near … amino acids to break down proteins
pepsinogen; hydrochloric acid; pepsin; aromatic
pepsin most active at … ph, which is unique bc most human enzymes are most active at physiological pH
low;
parietal cells secrete … and … –glycoprotein involved in absorption of vitamin B-12
HCl; intrinsic factor
pyloric glands in stomach have an … function –> contain … cells that secrete …, which stimulates parietal cells such that more … is released
endocrine; G; gastrin; HCl
gastrin also signals stomach to … such that its contents are …
contract; mixed
…: semifluid, acidic mixture resulting from digestion in the stomach
chyme
some nutrients are … directly from stomach (e.g. alcohol, aspirin), but stomach is mainly for digestion
absorbed
3 segments of small intestine: …, …, …
… is the site of most of chemical digestion, minor involvement in absorption
absorption primarily occurs in … and …
duodenum; jejunum; ileum;
duodenum
jejunum; ileum
…: between stomach and duodenum
pyloric sphincter
chyme in the duodenum causes release of .. –> … and …, etc
… are present on cell surfaces lining the duodenum and break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules
brush-border enzymes; disaccharidases; peptidases
brush border enzymes
disaccharidases digest disaccharides: ... - ... ... - ... ... - ... ... - ...
o Maltase – maltose
o Isomaltase – isomaltose
o Lactase – lactose
o Sucrase – sucrose
lack of a disaccharidase = inability to digest corresponding disaccharide
… then hydrolyze disaccharide, releasing …
undigested disaccharides pull … into stool due to an … effect, causing diarrhea
bacteria; methane; water; osmotic
… break down proteins:
…: secreted by glands in duodenum, removes N-terminal amino acid from a peptide
…: cleave peptide bonds of dipeptides, freeing individual amino acids
unlike carbs, di- and tripeptides can be absorbed across small intestine wall
peptidases
aminopeptidase
dipeptidases
… is released by duodenum and activates other enzymes:
activates … to …
activates … and …
enteropeptidase
trypsinogen; trypsin
procarboxypeptidases A and B
…: allows for release of pancreatic enzymes in the duodenum and opposes … in that it reduces HCl secretion from parietal cells and increases .. secretion from the pancreas
secretin; gastrin; bicarbonate
secretin is an … –> slows motility through digestive tract to increase time for digestive enzymes to act on chyme
enterogastrone
… stimulates release of bile and pancreatic juices and also promotes satiety
cholecystokinin
..: consists of bile salts, pigments, and cholesterol –> is itself derived from …
not an …
bile; cholesterol; enzyme
bile plays a role in mechanical digestion of … and facilitate chemical digestion of …
… fats and cholesterol into …, otherwise fats would separate from aqueous layer and would not be able to be acted upon by the water soluble enzyme …
fats; lipids
emulsify; micelles
pancreatic lipase
bile
micelles increase … of fats, increasing speed of lipase’s action
bile brings fats into solution and increases surface area and lipase subsequently … holding lipids together
surface area;
hydrolyzes ester bonds
… : mixture of several enzymes in a bicarbonate-rich alkaline solution
bicarbonate … and brings pH to optimum for digestive enzyme (around …
pancreatic juices
neutralizes acidic chyme
8.5
accessory organs of digestion: …, …, …
pancreas; liver; gallbladder
… cells: cells that produce pancreatic juices to execute endocrine function of pancreas
acinar
pancreatic enzymes:
… : breaks down polysaccharides for carb digestion
pancreatic amylase
pancreatic enzymes: ..., ..., and ... produced in zymogen form but activated ... activates ..., which activates the rest these are peptidases
trypsinogen; chymotrypsinogen; carboxypeptidases A and B
enteropeptidase; trypsin
pancreatic enzymes:
…: breaks down fats into free fatty acids and glycerol
pancreatic lipase
like all exocrine cells, acinar cells secrete their products into …, which empty into the duodenum through the major and minor …
ducts; duodenal papillae
bile ducts connect … with the … and …
liver; gallbladder; small intestine
… produces bile that is stored and concentrated in the …
liver; gallbladder
liver receives blood draining from abdominal portion of the digestive tract via … –> blood is processed by liver and then enters … to make its way back to the heart
hepatic portal vein
inferior vena cava
liver can take up excess sugar by producing … and can store fats as …
can also undo these via … and … and mobilizing fats in …
glycogen; triacylglycerols
glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis; lipoprotiens
liver detoxifies … and … compounds
endogenous; exogenous
…: major pigment in bile –> byproduct of .. breakdown
bilirubin; hemoglobin
bilirubin is … (attached to a protein_ and secreted into bile for excretion
conjugated
… occurs when bilirubin can’t be excreted by the liver –> indicative of liver damage/ too much …/ blockage of …
jaundice; RBC destruction; bile ducts
liver synthesizes certain proteins:
…: maintains plasma oncotic pressure and acts as a carrier for some drugs and hormones
…: important for blood coagulation
albumin; clotting factors
…: contracts and pushes bile out into biliary tree and empties into duodenum
bile duct system merges with …
gallbladder; pancreatic duct
… or … can form in gallbladder and can potentially block the … and … (latter would lead to pancreatitis)
cholesterol; bilirubin; biliary tree; pancreatic duct
accessory organs of digestion originate from the
embryonic endoderm
large intestine largely
absorbs water
small intestine lined with … –> small, fingerlike projections from epithelial lining
villi
each villus has … that increases SA for absorption
at the middle of each villus is a … for absorption of water soluble nutrients and a …, which takes up fats for transport into the lymphatic system
microvilli
capillary bed; lacteal
simple sugars and amino acids are absorbed by … and … into the epithelial cells lining the small intestine
they move into … and are picked up the bloodstream, travelling down their concentration gradient
the absorbed molecules are brought to the liver via the …
secondary active transport; facilitated diffusion; intestinal capillaries; hepatic portal circulation
small fatty acids diffuse directly into … –> … so can pass through cell membranes
intestinal capillaries; nonpolar
larger fats, glycerol, and cholesterol move into … and reform … these are packaged into … and enter lymphatic system via lacteals. lacteals converge and enter … through thoracic duct, and this is emptied into …
intestinal cells; triglycerides
chylomicrons
venous circulation; left subclavian vein
… are absorbed in the small intestine –> fat and water soluble
vitamins
fat soluble vitamins dissolve into … to enter the body
water-soluble vitamins pass directly into …
chylomicrons
plasma
avg person may consume up to 2 L of fluid per day, but secretions into the upper GI tract my total up to … L of fluid per day. to maintain proper fluid levels, much of this fluid must be …
7 L; reabsorbed by osmosis
water passes … (across cell membrane) and … (squeezing between cells) to reach blood
transcellularly; paracellulary
large intestine consists of the …, …, and …
larger … but .. than small intestine
cecum; colon; rectum
diameter; shorter
cecum accepts fluid exiting small intestine through the … valve and is site of attachment of the …
ileococcal; appendix
appendix used to be thought of as vestigial. may be useful against some … and repopulating large intestine with … after ..
bacterial infections; flora; diarrhea
colon is divided into …, …, …, and … colons
ascending; transverse; descending; sigmoid
colon absorbs … and … from undigested material left over from small intestine
small intestine absorbs more water than colon
colon primarily concentrates ..
water; salts;
remaining material to feces
rectum … which consists of indigestible material, water, bacteria, digestive secretions that are not reabsorbed, and some bile
stores feces
anus is opening through which … –> two sphincters: … and .. sphincters
… is under involuntary control
… is under voluntary control
feces is excreted
internal and external anal sphincters;
internal
external
bacteria in intestine have … relationships
some produce …, …, etc
symbiotic
vitamin K; biotin
excretory system: ... ... ... ...
kidneys
ureters
bladder
urethra
functional unit of kidney = …
nephron
nephrons empty into …, which narrows to form …
renal pelvis; ureter
urine travels through ureter to …and exits the body through the ..
bladder; urethra
kidney is subdivided into a .. and a …
…: outermost layer
…: within the cortex
cortex; medulla
cortex
medulla
kidney has a … –> deep slit in center of medial surface
widest part of the ureter (…) spans almost the entire width of this
…, …, and ureter enter and exit through this slit
renal hilium
renal pelvis
renal artery; renal vein
kidney has a portal system:
renal artery branches into cortex as …
..: capillary tufts derived from these
afferent arterioles
glomeruli
kidney has a portal system contd:
after blood passes through a glomerulus, the … form a second capillary bed that surrounds .. –> …
efferent arterioles; loop of Henle; vasa recta
glomerulus is surrounded by a … which leads to .., then … and … of the …, …, and …
Bowman’s capsule; proximal convoluted tubule; descending and ascending limbs of the Loop of Henle; distal convoluted tubule; collecting duct
…: muscular lining of the bladder
contracts via … activity
detrusor muscle; parasympathetic
to leave body urine must pass both the … and …
internal urethral; external urethral sphincters
internal urethral sphincter is under … control is and is typically … –> made of …
external urethral sphincter is … and is made of … muscle
autonomic; contracted; smooth muscle
voluntary; skeletal
…: when bladder is full, .. receptors communicate to NS that it needs emptying, detrusor muscle contracts and … relax
individual’s choice at this point to pee or not
micturition reflex; stretch; internal sphincter
if blood volume is low and blood osmolarity is high, … would be most beneficial, resulting in … volume, … urine
retention of water; low; highly concentrated
if someone has sufficient quantities of fluid, they will have .. volume, … urine
larger; less concentrated
primary job of kidneys is to regulate … and …
blood volume; osmolarity
kidney function divided into three processes: …, …, …
filtration; secretion; reabsorption
filtration occurs at level of .. and …. The latter collects filtrate. this is governed by ..
glomerulus; Bowman’s capsule; Starling forces
… pressure in glomerulus is higher than in Bowman’s space such that fluid moves …
small molecules dissolved in blood will pass through tiny pores of glomerulus, whereas large molecules such as … and … will not. if these larger molecule are found in urine, indicates a health problem at level of …
hydrostatic; into nephron
proteins; blood cells; glomerulus
filtrate is … to blood so that neither capsule nor capillaries swell
isotonic
nephrons secrete …, …, …, and … into tubule via active and passive transport mechanisms
salts; acids; bases; urea
… is byproduct of metabolism of nitrogen containing compounds –> basic, can disturb pH of blood and cells
… neutralizes it by converting it to …, which is secreted into the nephron for excretion
ammonia; liver; urea
kidneys can eliminate ions/other substances present in excess –> … cations, … ions, metabolites of …, etc
K+; H+; medication
secretion is also for excreting wastes that are … to pass through glomerular pores
too large
..: some filtered/secreted compounds are taken back up, namely …, …, …
reabsorption; glucose; amino acids; vitamins
kidney’s two main goals: … and … and … to ..
keep what the body needs and lose what it doesn’t and concentrate the urine to conserve water
bowman’s capsule, PCT, and DCT are focused on the … in urine. Loop of Henle and collecting duct are focused on … and … of urine
identity of particles; volume; concentration
filtrate goes from Bowman’s capsule to proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) –> …, …, …, and … are reabsorbed along with water
filtrate still …
solutes that enter the interstitium reenter the bloodstream via the …
secretion of waste products –> …, …, …, …
amino acids
glucose
water-soluble vitamins
salts
H+
K+
ammonia
urea
waste products excreted in urine mnemonic:
dump the HUNK H: H+ U: Urea N: NH3 K: K+
descending limb of loop of Henle: permeable to … only, deep in …, medulla has …, so water is … here
water; medulla; higher osmolarity; reabsorbed
deeper in medulla, osmolarity in interstitium can range from isotonic to blood (when trying to …) to … (when trying to …)
excrete water; four times as concentrated; conserve water
… system created by vasa recta –> two run in opposite directions
flow of … is in opposite direction as …, such that filtrate is constantly being exposed to … blood to allow maximal reabsorption of water
countercurrent multiplier; filtrate through Loop of Henle; flow of blood; hypertonic
ascending limb is permeable only to … –> as filtrate moves up ascending loop, … will be reabsorbed
salt; salt
as we go from inner to outer medulla, loop of Henle becomes … –> … segment
cells lining tube are larger here, bc they have a lot of … to allow for reabsorption of … and … by active transport
only portion of nephron that can produce urine that is more … than blood –> important in cases of overhydration
thicker; diluting; mitochondria; sodium; chloride; dilute
compared to beginning of loop of Henle, there is a net … in the volume of filtrate, net … of a lot of water
decrease; reabsorption
in the DCT (distal convoluted tubule), … is reabsorbed along with … and waste products are also secreted
sodium; water
at the collecting duct, more … may be reabsorbed depending on its permeability
collecting ducts response to … and …
everything that stays in collecting duct is …
water
ADH; aldosterone
excreted
kidney can influence …, …, and … balance
blood pressure; blood osmolarity; acid-base balance
kidney:
blood pressure –> through … and …
… prompts reabsorption of isotonic fluid that increases blood … and …
… makes collecting duct more leaky
constriction of … will lead to lower pressure of blood reaching glomeruli, which will lead to … release, helping to raise BP
ADH; aldosterone
aldosterone; volume; pressure
ADH
afferent arterioles; lenin
kidneys & osmoregulation:
osmotic pressure = sucking pressure that draws water into vasculature by …
oncotic pressure = osmotic pressure attributable to …
all dissolved particles
dissolved proteins
kidneys and osmoregulation:
normal blood osmolarity is about … milliosomoles
low blood osmolarity = excretion of …, reabsorption of …
high blood osmolarity = … reabsorption, … excretion
290
excess water; solutes
water; solute
kidneys & pH:
kidneys can selectively excrete either … or …
H+; bicarbonate
layers of the skin (from deepest to most superficial):
… (..)
…
..
hypodermis; subcutaneous
dermis
epidermis
skin is derived from … in embryo
ectoderm
epidermis subdivided into …
strata
strata (deepest to most superficial):
…: contains stem cells, proliferation of keratinocytes, which produce keratin
…: become connected to each other –> site of Langerhans cells
…: keratinocytes die and lose nuclei
…: only present in thick, hairless skin, nearly transparent
…: contains up to several dozen layers of flattened keratinocytes, protective barrier, contains hair and openings for sweat and sebaceous glands
stratum basale stratum spinosum stratum granulosum stratum lucidum stratum corneum
…: resistant to damage and protects against injury, water, pathogens
keratin
…: excessive keratin deposition to prevent future damage in areas of repeated strain
.. and … are formed from keratin
calluses
fingernails; hair
…: derived from neutral crest cells in the stratum basale, produce melanin
melanocytes
…: pigment that protects against UV
melanin
melanin passed to …
more active melanocytes = …
keratinocytes
darker skin tones
… cells: special macrophages within the stratum spinosum, antigen-presenting cells
Langerhans
dermis consists of multiple layers:
… layer –> upper layer, loos connective tissue
… layer –> denser, below papillary
papillary
reticular
…, …, and … originate in dermis, as do most sensory receptors
sweat glands; blood vessels; hair follicles
… cells (..): sensory receptors present at epidermal-dermal junction –> deep pressure and texture sensation
merkel; discs
dermis: .. respond to pain ... --> light touch ... --> stretch ... --> deep pressure and vibration
free nerve endings
Meissner’s corpuscles
Ruffini endings
Pacinian corpuscles
…: connective tissue that connects skin to rest of body; contains fat and fibrous tissue
hyperdermis
thermoregulation achieved by …, …, …, …
sweating; piloerection; vasodilation; vasoconstriction
sweating –> … neurons use … and promote secretion of water with certain ions – evaporates, along with heat
… also occurs to maximize heat loss
postganglionic sympathetic; acetylcholine; arteriolar vasodilation
… muscles contract to cause piloerection –> traps heated air near skin
arterioles …, limiting blood supply reaching skin
shivering – uses …, converted to thermal energy
arrector pili; constrict; ATP
… insulates body:
…
… – much less efficient electron transport chain, more heat energy subsequently released
fat
white fat
brown fat
skin maintains … of the body –> impermeable to … –> none enters or leaves the skin
osmolarity; water
contraction relies on …
calcium ions
skeletal muscle is … –> innervated by … NS
voluntary; somatic
skeletal muscle is striated due to arrangement of … –> repeating units of … and …
… because individual muscle cells fuse in …
sarcomeres; actin; myosin
multinucleated; long rods
skeletal muscle has … and … fibers
red; white
red fibers –> … fibers
high … content
slow-twitch; myoglobin
myoglobin carries … and uses … in a heme group to bind it, the latter thing gives it its red color
oxygen; iron
red fibers contd:
aerobic metabolism –> …
seen more in muscles that … and …. (muscles that support posture)
oxidative phosphorylation
contract slowly; fatigue slowly
white fibers in skeletal muscle –> … fibers
… myoglobin content
seen more in muscles that …, but … as well
fast-twitch;
low
contract rapidly; fatigue rapidly
smooth muscle is …, innervated by …
involuntary; autonomic NS
smooth muscle found in: ... ... ... ... ... etc
respiratory tree digestive tract bladder uterus blood vessel walls
smooth muscle:
single … in center
contain … and … as well but not in a striated pattern
capable of more sustained …
nucleus
actin; myosin;
contractions
smooth muscle contd:
…: constant state of low-level contraction –> seen in blood vessels
tonus
(smooth muscle) …: ability to contract without nervous system input
for smooth muscle, contraction is response to … or other stimuli
myogenic activity; stretch
cardiac muscle is identified separately, but has characteristics of both skeletal and smooth muscle:
mostly …, but some cells have … nuclei
…, innervated by … nervous system
appears …
uninucleated; 2
involuntary; autonomic
striated
cardiac myocytes are connected by … that contain … –> allow for direct flow of ions between cells, for quick and coordinated … and …
intercalated discs; gap junctions; depolarization; contraction
cardiac muscle displays … activity as well –> … initiating electrical impulse for contraction
myogenic; sinoatrial node
epinephrine allows for greater contractility of cardiac muscle by increasing …
intracellular calcium levels
…: basic contractile unit of skeletal muscle
sarcomere
sarcomere:
… filaments: bundles of myosin
… filaments: actin + troponin and tropomyosin
thick
thin
sarcomere:
.. and … help regulate interaction between actin and myosin
troponin; tropomyosin
(sarcomere)
…: anchors actin and myosin filaments, prevents excessive stretching of muscle
titin
(sarcomere) … defines boundaries of each sarcomere
…: runs down center of sarcomere, through the middle of myosin filaments
…: contains exclusively thin filaments
…: contains exclusively thick filaments
…: all of the thick filaments, including its overlap with thin filaments
Z-line M-line I-band H-zone A-band
(sarcomere) during contraction, .. remains constant in size, while everything else becomes …
A-band; smaller
sarcomeres are attached end-to-end to form …, which are covered by …, a modified ER that has a large concentration of…
myofibirils; sarcoplasmic reticulum; calcium
..: modified cytoplasm outside of SR
sarcoplasm
…: cell membrane of a myocyte
can propagate an action potential and distribute it to all sarcomeres using … which are perpendicular to myofibrils
sarcolemma; transverse tubules
…: muscle cell/muscle fiber
myocyte
myocyte: contains many … in parallel (this is for skeletal muscle)
nuclei are usually found at … of cell
myofibrils; periphery
any myocytes in parallel = …
muscle
contraction is initiated at the … –> where NS and muscle communicates via … (…) neurons
neuromuscular junction; motor; efferent
for muscle contraction:
signal travels to …, which for neuromuscular junctions, can also be called the …
… is released into the synapse and binds to the adjacent sarcolemma to cause …
nerve terminals; motor end plate
acetylcholine; depolarization
for muscle contraction:
each nerve terminal controls
a group of myocytes
for muscle contraction:
nerve terminal + myocytes =
motor unit
for muscle contraction: depolarization triggers action potential that spreads to the …., which allow the action potential to reach the sarcoplasmic reticulum. … is released at this point
t-tubules; Ca2+
for muscle contraction:
calcium binds to subunit in .., changing the conformation of … (these two are bound to one another). this exposes … sites on …
troponin; tropomyosin; myosin binding; actin thin filament
for muscle contraction:
myosin then binds to exposed sites, pulling the actin toward the …, and consequently … the sarcomere
M-line; shortening
for muscle contraction:
myosin is activated by …
… to myosin head releases it from actin
… recocks myosin head so that it can initiate another cross-bridge cycle with an actin filament
ATP hydrolysis
ATP binding
ATP hydrolysis
for muscle contraction:
…. model: repetitive binding and releasing of myosin heads on actin allows for thin filament to slide along thick filament, shortening sarcomere –> this is …
sliding filament; contraction
for muscle contraction:
to allow for muscle relaxation, acetylcholine is degraded in synapse by … –> allows sarcolemma to ..
… is taken up by sarcoplasmic reticulum and ATP … to release it from actin
acetylcholinesterase; repolarize
calcium; binds to myosin
like with neurons, stimuli for muscle must reach a … for a response to occur
…: when all fibers within a muscle contract at the same time
threshold
maximal response
…: response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus
…: time between reaching threshold and onset of contraction –> this is when action potential can spread and calcium can be released
simple twitch
latent period
…: when muscle is exposed to frequent and prolonged stimulation, such as there is little time to relax –> contractions …, … and …
frequency summation
combine; strengthening; lasting longer
…: when contractions are so frequent that muscle cannot relax at all –> can lead to muscle fatigue
tetanus
two supplemental energy reserves in muscle besides normal oxidative phosphorylation:
… created by transferring phosphate group from ATP to … during times of rest. rxn can be reversed during muscle use to quickly generate ATP
… can be used to sustain aerobic metabolism
creatine phosphate; creatine
myoglobin
two supplemental energy reserves in muscle besides normal oxidative phosphorylation:
white muscle fibers must use … and … to make ATP since they don’t have as much …
glycolysis; fermentation; mitochondria
…: difference between amount of oxygen needed by muscles and actual amount present
oxygen debt
…: internal, cannot protect soft tissues
endoskeleton
…: external, must be shed and regrown to accomton modate growth
exoskeleton
…: provides basic central framework for body
…
…
…
… (small bone in anterior neck used for swallowing)
axial skeleton skull vertebral column ribcage hyoid bone
… skeleton: bones of the limbs, pectoral girdle (… and …), pelvis
appendicular; scapula; clavicle
bones of the limbs: upper limbs: ... .. and ... ... ... ...
lower limbs: ... ... ... ... ... ...
humerus radius and ulna carpals metacarpals phalanges
femur tibia fibula tarsals metatarsals phalanges
…: connective tissue derived from embryonic …
bone; mesoderm
bone strength comes from … –> dense and strong
compact bone
…./… bone: lattice structure, consists of bony points known as trabeculae
spongy; cancellous
cavities between trabeculae are filled with …
…: filled with hematopoietic stem cells
…: mainly fat, inactive
bone marrow
red bone marrow
yellow marrow
bones in appendicular skeleton are usually …
long bones
bones in appendicular skeleton are usually long bones:
long bones have cylindrical shafts –> …, swell at each end to form .., which terminate in…
diaphyses; metaphyses; epiphyses
bones in appendicular skeleton are usually long bones:
outermost part of bone –> … bone
inner portion of bone –> … bone
diaphyses and metaphyses are full of …
compact
spongy
bone marrow
bones in appendicular skeleton are usually long bones:
epiphyses uses spongy core for effective ….. at joints
… at internal edge –> site of … growth, these seal at puberty
force and pressure dispersion;
epiphyseal (growth) plate; longitudinal
bones in appendicular skeleton are usually long bones:
…: fibrous sheath that surrounds long bone to protect it and act as site for muscle attachment
some of these cells can differentiate into … cells –> necessary for bone growth and repair
periosteum
bone-forming
…: attach muscle to bone
…: hold bones together at joints
tendons
ligaments
…: contributes to strength of compact bone, has both organic and inorganic components
bone matrix
(bone matrix) organic:
…
…
other …
collagen
glycoproteins
peptides
(bone matrix) inorganic: ... .. ... these harden to form ... crystals
calcium
phosphate
hydroxide
hydroxyapatite
(bone matrix) … (e.g. sodium, magnesium, potassium) also stored in bone
minerals
(bone matrix) structural units: …./…. systems
osteons; Haversian
(bone matrix) osteons contain concentric circles of bony matrix called … surrounding central channel –>
longitudinal channels = …
transverse channels = …
lamellae;
Haversian canals
Volkmann’s canals
(bone matrix) canals contain …, …, and …
blood vessels; nerve fibers; lymph vessels
(bone matrix) …: spaces between lamellar rings that house mature bone cells known as …
interconnected by … –> allow for exchange of nutrients/waste between osteocytes and Haversian and Volkmann’s canals
lacunae; osteocytes
canaliculi
… build bone
osteoblasts
…: polynucleated bone macrophages; resorb bone
releases ingredients of bones such as … and …
osteoclasts; calcium; phosphate
parathyroid hormone promotes … and thus increases … and … concs in the blood
bone resorption; calcium; phosphate
… promotes bone resorption –> encourage growth of new, stronger bone
vitamin D
…: promotes bone formation and consequently lowers calcium concs
calcitonin
…: has elastic matrix called chondrin, secreted by …
present in adults in external ear, nose, walls of … and …, …, and joints
… ( no blood/lymphatic vessels) and is not …, unlike bone
cartilage; chrondrocytes
larynx; trachea; intervertebral discs;
avascular; innervated
most bones are made by … into bone –> ..
hardening cartilage; endochondral ossification
…: undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue (… tissue) is transformed into bone
occurs in skull
intramembranous ossification; mesenchymal
joints: also made of … tissue
connective
…: bones that are fused to form sutures/similar fibrous joints –> primary in head to anchor bones of skull together
immovable
movable joints: … joints, … joints, etc
hinge; ball-and-socket
movable jointes:
allow bones to shift relative to one another
strengthened by …
consist of a … that encloses the joint/articular cavity
synovium secretes … to lubricate movement
… coats articular surfaces so that impact is restricted to the lubricated joint cartilage instead of the bone
ligaments
synovial capsule
synovial fluid
articular cartilage
contraction of muscle attached to two bones will cause one of the bones to move:
origin: end of muscle with …. to bone (tends to be the … connection)
insertion: end with … to bone (tends to be … connection)
larger attachment; proximal
smaller attachment; distal
… pairs: one muscle relaxes while another contracts
occurs in arm –> biceps and triceps
antagonistic
…: muscles work together to accomplish the same function
synergistic
…: decreases angle across a joint
flexor muscle
…: increases/straightens angle across joint
extensor
…: moves a part of the body away from the midline
abductor
…: moves body part towards the midline
adductor
… and …: motions that occur in limbs
…: rotates the axis of the limb toward the midline
…: rotates the axis of the limb away from the midline
medial and lateral rotation
medial rotator
lateral rotator
every human has two copies of each chromosome: …
exception: X gene in males
homologues
…: when only 1 allele is present for a given gene –> as it is for X chromosomes in males
hemizygous
…: when there is more than one dominant allele for a given gene
AB blood type
codominance
…: heterozygote has a phenotype that is an intermediate between the two homozygous genotypes
incomplete dominance
…: proportion of the population with a given genotype who actually express the phenotype
penetrance
penetrance:
…. penetrance: 100 % of individuals with an allele exhibit its phenotype
… penetrance: most, but not all, with the allele exhibit its phenotype
… penetrance, … penetrance, …
full high reduced low nonpenetrance
…: different manifestations of the same genotype across the population
…: all individuals with a given genotype express the same phenotype
…: individuals with the same genotype may have different phenotypes
expressivity
constant
variable
mendel’s first law of segregation:
genes exist in alternative forms as …
organism has 2 alleles for each gene
two alleles …, such that the haploid gametes only have one copy of each allele
if an organism has two different alleles, one will be dominant and the other will be recessive –> … and … are exceptions
alleles
segregate during meiosis
codominance; incomplete dominance
Mendel’s second law of independent assortment:
inheritance of one gene is … of another gene
this is due to … during meiosis which pretty much randomizes what genes a future child would have
… are an exception
independent of inheritance;
recombination
linked genes
Griffith’s experiment on mice revealed that there was some … that allowed nonvirulent strains to transform into the virulent strains that killed the mice
transforming principle
avery, macleod, and mccarty confirmed the idea of the transforming principle by isolated subcellular components of the bacteria and seeing which would cause the transformation to occur –> transformation didn’t occur when … was used
conclusion: transforming factor = …
DNAse; DNA
hershey and chase labeled bacteriophages with … (in proteins but not DNA) and another group with … (in DNA but not proteins)
bacteriophages inject their genetic material into bacteria and leave protein capsides
infected cells were labeled with .., indicating that … is the source of genetic material
radioactive sulfur; radioactive phosphorus
radioactive phosphorus
DNA
…: all alleles that exist within a species
gene pool
..: elements that can insert and remove themselves from the genome
if inserted into coding mutation, will be a mutation that will disrupt the gene
transposon
…: when one nucleotide in DNA is swapped for another
…: change in nucleotide has no effect on final protein synthesized –> most common when mutation is in the third nucleotide in a codon because there is … in the genetic code
…: mutation results in substitution of one amino acid for another in final protein
…: when the change in nucleotide results in early termination of a protein by substituting an amino acid with a stop codon
point mutations
silent; degeneracy
missense
nonsense
.. mutations: insertions/deletions
shift the reading frame
can lead to changes in amino acid sequence/early termination
frameshift
… mutations: larger scale mutations in which large segments of DNA are affected
chromosomal
chromosomal mutations:
…: large segment of DNA is lost from a chromosome
…: segment of DNA is copied multiple times in the genome
…: segment of DNA is reversed in the chromosome
…: segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another
…: segment of DNA from one chromosome is swapped with segment of DNA from another
deletion duplication inversion insertion translocation
…: defects in genes required for metabolism
can lead to buildup of metabolites in various pathways
inborn errors of metabolism
…: flow of genes between species
… offspring
can result in net flow of genes from one species to the other if offspring is viable and fertile
genetic leakage
hybrid
…: changes in composition of gene pool due to change
… effect in small populations
genetic drift
greater
genetic drift:
…: small population is in reproductive isolation from the rest of the population
…: drastically and suddenly reduce size of population available for breeding –> chances of … increases
… genetic diversity
founder effect
bottlenecks
inbreeding
reduces
…: loss of genetic variation that reduces population fitness
inbreeding depression
…/…: introduction of unrelated individuals into a breeding group
can increase variation and fitness
outbreeding; outcrossing
…: cross in which one trait is being studied
monohybrid
…/…: individuals being crossed
…/…: offspring of P generation
parent/P generation
filial/F generation
…: used to determine an unknown genotype by crossing the organism with an unknown genotype with an organism known to be homozygous recessive
also called …
test cross
back crosses
…: accounts for inheritance of two different genes
dihybrid cross
… (…) traits:
females can be homozygous/heterozygous
males are hemizygous
e.g. hemophilia
sex-linked; X-linked
genes that are very close together on a chromosome are less likely to be … during …
separated from each other; crossing over
…: likelihood that two alleles are separated from each other during crossing over
recombination frequency
recombination frequency (theta) is approximately proportional to ... on a chromosome tightly linked genes have recomb frequencies close to ...% and weakly linked genes have recomb frequencies approaching ...
distance between genes
0; 50%
…: represents relative distance between genes on a chromosome
…/…: 1% chance of recombination occurring between two genes
genetic map
map unit; centimorgan
…: how often allele appears in a population
allele frequency
five tenets of hardy-weinberg equilibrium:
population is very … –> no …
no …
… –> no …
no …
no … –> all the genes are equally successful at reproducing
large; genetic drift mutation random mating; sexual selection migration differential success
P + q = 1 and p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
… is dominant, … is recessive
first equation is for … frequencies
second equation is for … frequencies
p; q
allelic
genotypic
tenets of natural selection:
organisms produce offspring, few of which survive to …
chance variations within population may be … if they confer advantage, they are favorable
those with more favorable variations are more likely to survive and reproduce –> have …
fitness directly related to relative … of the individual to the next generation
reproductive maturity
heritable
increased fitness
genetic contribution
…/..: integrates genetic inheritance and changes to gene pool with Darwin’s original theory
modern-synthesis model; neo-Darwinism
modern-synthesis model:
when mutations/recombination results in favorable change, they are more likely to be passed on to next generation –> …
…: measure of an organism’s success in a population –> … of offspring, …, and ability of the offspring to then …
differential reproduction
inclusive fitness; number; success in supporting offspring; support others
modern-synthesis model:
inclusive fitness promotes idea that … can improve fitness and success of species as a whole
altruistic behavior
modern-synthesis model:
…: changes in some species occur in rapid bursts rather than evenly over time
punctuated equilibrium
… selection keeps phenotypes within a specific range by selecting against extremes
stabilizing
…. selection: adaptive pressure leads to emergence and dominance of an initially extreme phenotype
directional
… selection: two extremes selected over the norm
facilitated by existence of …: naturally occurring differences in form between members of the same population
disruptive
polymorphisms
…: describes the rapid rise of different species from a common ancestor
allows for various species to occupy different niches
adaptive radiation
…: specific environment, including habitat, available resources, and predators, for which a species can be specifically adapted
niche
adaptive radiation
favored by …./… of … groups of the ancestral species
environmental changes; isolation of small groups
geographic isolation can lead to … in that it can lead to … as genetic differences begin to accumulate between the separated populations
speciation; reproductive isolation
... mechanisms of isolation prevent formation of the zygote completely: ... ... ... ... ...
prezygotic temporal ecological behavioral reproductive gametic
… mechanisms allow for gamete fusion but yield either nonviable or sterile offspring
postzygotic
postzygotic mecahnisms:
hybrid …: zygote that can’t develop to term
hybrid …: hybrid that can’t reproduce
hybrid …: first generation is viable and fertile, but second generation is inviable or infertile
inviability
sterility
breakdown
three patterns of evolution:
…: independent development of dissimilar characteristics in two+ lineages sharing a common ancestor
… evolution: related species evolve in similar ways in response to analogous environmental selection pressures –> share a common ancestor
… evolution: independent development of similar characteristics in two or more lineages not sharing a recent common ancestor
divergent
parallel
convergent
… model: evolutionists correlate degree of genomic similarity with amount of time since two species split off from the same common ancestor –> more similar the genomes, the more recently the two species …
molecular clock; separated from each other
