Kaplan Bio Flashcards
1
Q
cell theory: all … are made of cells cell is the … of life cells can arise only from … cells carry … as …, which is passed from each parent cell to its subsequent daughter cell
A
living things
basic functional unit
other preexisting cells
genetic information; DNA
2
Q
viruses, unlike cells, cannot … directly and can have … as their genetic material. thus, they are not living
A
reproduce; RNA
3
Q
(nucleus) contains all of the genetic material necessary for …
surrounded by a … or …
A
replication; nuclear membrane; envelope
4
Q
(nucleus) … in the membrane allow for exchange of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm
A
nuclear pores
5
Q
(nucleus) linear DNA has organizing proteins known as … and is further wound into … –> these package and order the DNA into … (beads on a string)
A
histones; chromosomes
nucleosomes
6
Q
(nucleus) … is where rRNA is synthesized –> 25% of the nucleus’s volume
A
nucleolus
7
Q
(mitochondria) has outer and inner membrane:
outer membrane is the barrier between the … and the …
inner membrane is highly … (…) and contains the molecules and enzymes for the …
A
inner enviro; cytosol
invaginated; cristae; electron transport chain
8
Q
(mitochondria) function of the cristae is to … available for electron transport chain enzymes
space between membranes is … –> allows for … to build for e- transport chain
A
increase surface area
intermembrane space; proton gradient
9
Q
(mitochondria) …: space inside the inner membrane –> gel-like substance
mito is … –> has its own genes and replicate independently of the nucleus via … –> supports theory that mitochondria arose from anaerobic prokaryotic cell that was invaginated
A
matrix
semi-autonomous; binary fission
10
Q
(mitochondria) … –> transmission of genetic material independent of the nucleus
A
cytoplasmic/extranuclear inheritance
11
Q
(mitochondria) mitochondria is the source of … –> process begins when the mitochondria releases enzymes from the e- transport chain
A
apoptosis
12
Q
(lysosomes) contain … enzymes –> digestive organelle
lysosomes work with … –> transport, package, and sort cell material coming to and from the cell membrane
A
hydrolytic enzymes
endosomes
13
Q
(lysosomes) endosomes: transport material to the …, …, or … pathway
A
trans-Golgi; cell membrane; llysosomal
14
Q
(lysosomes) lysosomes are also involved in apoptosis. when they release their …, the cell dies
A
hydrolytic enzymes
15
Q
(endoplasmic reticulum) contains a … membrane
smooth and rough –> rough has …
A
double
bound ribosomes
16
Q
(endoplasmic reticulum) bound ribosomes … that are secreted into the lumen of the ER
smooth ER = … and … –> also transports to the … from the RER
A
translate proteins
lipid synthesis; detoxification; Golgi apparatus
17
Q
(Golgi apparatus) materials are transported through … and … here –> modification can occur through intro of … which indicate where the product must go in the cell
A
vesicles; modified; signal sequences
18
Q
(peroxisomes) contain .. which is used to break down …
A
H2O2; long chain fatty acids;
19
Q
(peroxisomes) involved in … and has some of the enzymes used in the …
A
phospholipid synthesis; pentose phosphate pathway
20
Q
(cytoskeleton) provides … and enables materials to be … in the cell
contains three components: …, …, …
A
structure; transported
microfilaments; microtubules; intermediate filaments
21
Q
(cytoskeleton) … are made of rods of actin and are resistant to compression and fracture
A
microfilaments
22
Q
(cytoskeleton) actin can act in conjunction with … to allow for movement –> involved in …,
… of mitosis is formed from these
A
myosin
cytokinesis
cleavage furrow
23
Q
(cytoskeleton) microtubules are polymers of … –> provide primary pathways for motor proteins to …
A
tubulin; carry vesicles
24
Q
(cytoskeleton) … and … are made of microtubules
…: movement of materials along surface of cell
…: movement of cell itself
A
cilia; flagella
cilia
flagella
25
(cytoskeleton) ...: 9 microtubule pairs in a ring with 2 in the center --> structure of ... and ...
9 + 2 structure; cilia; flagella
26
(cytoskeleton) centrosome contains ... --> organizing centers for microtubules
these have 9 ... of microtubules with ... center
centrioles; triplets; hollow
27
(cytoskeleton) intermediate filaments: ..., ..., ..., ...
keratin; desmin; vimentin; lamins
28
(cytoskeleton) intermediate filaments:
... and maintenance of the integrity of the ...
makes cell structure more ... and helps ...
the type of intermediate filament proteins is dependent upon the ... and ... type
cell-cell adhesion; cytoskeleton
rigid; anchor organelles
cell; tissue
29
four tissue types: ..., ..., ..., ...
epithelial; connective; muscle; nervous
30
(epithelial tissue) covers ... and lines ...
protection against ... and ... (drying)
..., ..., ...
body; cavities
pathogens; desiccation
absorption; secretion; sensation
31
(epithelial tissue)
joined to one another and underlying connective tissue known as ...
different functions depending on where it's found
most organs use it for the ... --> functional part of the organ
basement membrane; parenchyma
32
(epithelial tissue) tend to be ...
polarized
33
(epithelial tissue) epithelia are classified according to their number of layers and cell shape:
...: 1 layer
...: multiple layers
...: appear to have multiple layers bc cell heights vary, but are only one layer
cells can be ..., ..., or ...
simple
stratified
pseudostratified
cuboidal; columnar; squamous
34
(connective tissue) supports the body and provides a framework for ...
epithelial cells to function
35
(connective tissue) contribute to the ... (..) of the organ it's a part of --> e.g. ..., ..., .., ... tissue, ..., etc
```
stroma; support
bone
cartilage
tendons
adipose tissue
blood
```
36
(connective tissue) most cells produce and secrete materials like collagen to form the ...
extracellular matrix
37
prokaryotes have DNA condensed into the ... region
nucleoid
38
archaea are more similar to eukaryotes in terms of their ... and ... than to bacteria
genes; metabolic pathways
39
eukaryotes likely evolved from ...
archaea
40
both archaea and eukaryotes have ..., start translation with ... and have similar ...
histones; Met; polymerases
41
archaea can use multiple sources of energy --> .../...
photosynthetic; chemosynthetic
42
some bacteria have ... or ... (the latter is like cilia)
flagella; fimbriae
43
some antibacterial vaccines differentiate between bacterial and eukaryotic ... and allow for targeting of ...
flagella; bacterial flagellum
44
antibiotics can target the bacterial ..., which is smaller than eukaryotic
ribosome
45
bacteria outnumber human cells in the body by ...:...
10:1
46
bacteria can be classified according to their shapes:
...: spherical (e.g. strep)
...: rod-shaped (e. coli)
...: spiral-shaped (syphilis)
cocci
bacilli
spirilli
47
any bacteria that can survive without oxygen are ... those that can use oxygen are ...
anaerobes; facultative anaerobes
48
...: cannot use oxygen for metabolism but are unharmed by it
aerotolerant; anaerobes
49
prokaryotes contain cell walls:
cell wall + cell membrane = ...
cell wall provides ... and controls movement of .. into and out of the bacteria
envelope
| structure; solutes
50
gram + and gram - (... is more dangerous):
| determined by staining the bacteria with .. and using a counterstain. if crystal violet stain was absorbed --> ...
gram -;
crystal violet;
gram +
51
gram + has ... and ...
peptidoglycan; lipoteichoic acid
52
gram - has cell walls that are much ... and have less ... these cell walls are separated from the cell membrane by the ...
thinner; peptidoglycan; periplasmic space
53
gram - bacteria have an ... that has ... and ... that is outside the cell wall
outer membrane; phospholipids; lipopolysaccharides
54
flagella are used for ... and can move the cell towards ... or away from ...
movement; food; toxins
55
ability for the cell to recognize chemical stimuli and move towards/away form it is ...
chemotaxis
56
flagella has:
...: helical structure of flagellin
...: anchors the flagellum to the cytoplasmic membrane and acts as its motor
...: connects filament and basal body, allowing filament to spin when basal body rotates such that the bacterium moves
filament
basal body
hook
57
bacteria DNA is coiled around ... proteins. archaea have ..
histone-like; true histones
58
...: circular structures containing DNA from external sources --> unnecessary for prokaryote's survival but can confer a selective advantage
NOT part of ...
plasmids; bacterial genome
59
electron transport chain of prokaryotes is located in the … itself
cell membrane
60
prokaryotic ribosomes have … and … subunits, eukaryotic ribosomes have … and … --> prokaryotic is smaller
30S; 50S; 40S; 60S
61
prokaryotes reproduce by ….:
circular chromosome attaches to … and replicates
plasma membrane and cell wall compress along middle of cell such that it separates into two daughter cells
binary fission; cell wall
62
plasmids can carry … --> makes bacteria more pathogenic
virulence factors
63
…: plasmids that can integrate into bacterial genome
episomes
64
bacterial genetic recombination diversifies bacteria:
…: integration of foreign material into genome --> tends to be from other …
…: sex for bacteria
…: requires a viral vector to carry genetic material from one bacteria to another
transformation
conjugation
transduction
65
(bacterial conjugation) two cells form a … that allows for genetic material to transfer --> goes from donor .. (..) to recipient .. (..) --> … process
conjugation bridge; male; +; female; -; unidirectional
66
(bacterial conjugation) conjugation bridge is made from … from donor --> necessitates presence of ...
… (…) factor is a sex factor of e. coli. donor cell replicates and donates a copy of this to the recipient, converting it into an … cell
facilitates rapid spread of … and virulence
```
sex pili
sex factors
F; fertility
F+ cell
antibacterial resistance
```
67
(bacterial conjugation) sex factor is … but can be incorporated in genome via …
plasmid; transformation
68
(bacterial conjugation) when sex factor is in genome, the entire DNA sequence will copy and the cell will try to transfer its whole genome to recipient, but conjugation bridge typically breaks before full sequence is transferred --> …
high frequency of recombination (hfr)
69
bacterial transduction:
bacteriophages can trap host DNA as it assembles and can transfer it to a new host cell when it infects it. this DNA can be incorporated in the ...
new host's genome
70
…: genetic elements that can insert/remove themselves from the genome (present in prokaryotes and eukaryotes)
transposons
71
bacteria grow in phases:
… phase: bacteria adapts to new environmental conditions
… phase: growth increases, exponential increase in number of bacteria in colony
… phase: when limits on resources slows reproduction
…. phase: bacteria exceeded environmental ability to support them (…)
lag
exponential/log
stationary
death
72
viruses are much smaller than prokaryotes and eukaryotic cells are ...x larger than prokaryotes
10
73
viruses composed of …, …, … containing …
genetic material; protein coat; envelope; lipids
74
(viruses) protein coat = …
if envelope is present, it will surround … --> composed of … and …
enveloped viruses are easier to kill bc envelopes are sensitive to …, …, and …
capsid;
capsid; phospholipids; virus-specific proteins
heat; detergents; desiccation
75
(viruses) viruses don't have … for protein synthesis
| …: viral progeny
ribosomes
| virions
76
(viruses) bacteriophages have a … and …
…: injects genetic material
…: help phage recognize and connect to correct host
tail sheath; tail fibers
tail sheath
tail fibers
77
(viruses) single stranded RNA viruses can be + sense or - sense
…: genome can be directly translated to functional proteins by host cell's ribosomes
…: require synthesis of a complementary RNA strand that is then used for protein synthesis
+; -
78
(viruses) …: enveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses that contain … to synthesize DNA
DNA is incorporated into host genome and is replicated and translated --> allows for …
e.g HIV
retroviruses; reverse transcriptase
| indefinite infection
79
(viruses) viral life stages
…: virus binds to receptors and cell and inserts viral material --> … enter cell intact, …. just insert genome
…: viral genome is translated and virions are formed
infected; enveloped virus; bacteriophages
| translation and progeny assembly
80
(viruses) viral life stages contd:
…: cells can die, allowing for release of progeny; cells can lyse from being overfilled with virions; cells can leave by fusing with the host's cell membrane (…), which allows for the infect cell to be continually used by the virus --> … cycle
progeny release; extrusion; productive
81
(viruses) lytic and lysogenic cycles:
... cycle: bacteriophage maximally uses host cell, which then lyses to release progeny --> bacteria in this phase are ...
lyric; virulent
82
(viruses) lytic and lysogenic cycles:
if the bacterium doesn't lyse, the virus can integrate into ... --> .../... --> begins ... cycle
virus is replicated when bacterium reproduces
host genome; provirus; prophage; lysogenic;
83
(viruses) lytic and lysogenic cycles:
lysogenic cycle:
certain environmental factors can trigger the ... from the ... and enables the lytic cycle to start
lysogenic cycle can be advantageous because it prevents bacteria from being infected with ... (prevents ...) and since ejection of provirus isn't guaranteed, there may be some advantage here
release of the provirus; genome; other phages; superinfection;
84
(viruses) ...: infectious proteins
can trigger ... of other proteins, typically by converting ... structures to ...
these aggregate and prevent proper cell function
prions
| misfolding; alpha; beta sheets
85
(viruses) ...: have very short circular single-stranded RNA and infects plants
silences genes in plant genome
there are some that infect humans
viroids
86
lysosymes are surrounded by a ... membrane
| ribosomes are ...
single; not surrounded by a membrane
87
connective tissue often secretes substances to form the ... such as ... and ...
extracellular matrix; collagen; elastin
88
.. tissue is considered a different tissue type of it sown (i.e. neither connective nor epithelial)
muscle
89
... (...): mammals that encase developing embryos in hard-shelled amniotic eggs and lay them to be hatched
prototherians; monotremes
90
... (...): mammals whose fetuses undergo development in the uterus and then climb out of the birth canal into the marsupium (pouch)
metatherians; marsupials
91
...: specific series of phases during which a cell grows, synthesizes DNA, and divides
cell cycle
92
(cell cycle) ... is the longest part of the cell cycle
| consists of the .., ..., and ... phases
interphase; G1; S; G2
93
(cell cycle) cells that don't divide are in the ... phase
G0
94
(cell cycle) during interphase, chromosomes are in a less condensed form --> ...
chromatin
95
(cell cycle) G1 stage, ...: ... are synthesized and the cell grows in size
to proceed to S stage, certain criteria must be met --> restriction point
presynthetic gap; organelles
96
(cell cycle) S stage, ....: DNA is replicated such that chromosomes now consist of two ... bound by a ...
synthesis of DNA; chromatids; centromere
97
(cell cycle) G2 stage, ... gap: more cell growth, ... synthesis. cell is preparing for ...; proper ... is assessed here. cell ensures that there is enough ... and ... to divide and that replication occurred without erro
postsynthetic; protein; mitosis; chromosome duplication; cytoplasm; organelles
98
(cell cycle) M stage, ... + ...
mitosis; cytokinesis
99
(cell cycle) G1/S checkpoint: main protein here is ... --> cell checks that DNA is in good condition for synthesis
p53
100
(cell cycle) G2/M checkpoint: ensures that cell has achieved adequate ... and ... have been properly replicated. p53 also involved here
size; organelles
101
(cell cycle) molecules responsible for cell cycle: ... and ... (CDK)
... activate ..., forming ... complexes
concentrations of cyclins vary throughout the cell cycle
cyclins; cyclin-dependent kinases
| cyclins; CDKs; CDK-cyclin complexes
102
(cell cycle) CDK-cyclin complexes ... which promote transcription of genes required for the next stage of the cell cycle
phosphorylate transcription factors
103
(cell cycle) cancer can be caused by mutation of ..., the gene that produces ... this prevents the cell cycle from stopping to repair damaged DNA. Mutations then accumulate, resulting in a cancerous cell that continues to divide
TP53; p53
104
(cell cycle) ...: spread of cancerous cells that occurs when the cells produce factors that allow it to become involved in local invasion or spread through the bloodstream/lymphatic system
metastasis
105
(mitosis) for non-germ-line cells only:
| ...: condensation of chromatin into chromosomes
prophase
106
(mitosis) prophase:
| ... separate and move to opposite poles --> ... are responsible for the correct division of DNA
centriole pairs; centrioles
107
(mitosis) prophase:
centrioles form ..., made of microtubules
... is one of the two microtubule organizing centers of the cell. the other is .../...
some of the microtubules form ... that anchor centrioles to cell membrane, and others extend toward the cell's center
fibers;
centrosome; flagella/cilia
asters
108
(mitosis) prophase:
... dissolves, such that spindle fibers can contact chromosomes
.... appear at the centromere --> points of attachment for fibers of the spindle apparatus (... fibers)
nuclear membrane;
| kinetochores; kinetochore
109
(mitosis) ...: kinetochore fibers interact with fibers of spindle apparatus to align chromosomes at the metaphase plate (... plate --> center of cell)
metaphase; equatorial
110
(mitosis) ...: ... separate and are pulled to opposite poles by shortening of kinetochore fibers
anaphase; sister chromatids
111
(mitosis) ... acts as reverse of prophase --> ... disappears,... reforms, ... reappear, chromosomes ...
```
telophase;
spindle apparatus;
nuclear membrane
nucleoli
uncoil
```
112
(mitosis) ...: division of cytoplasm and organelles
| as part of regulation, each cell goes through a finite number of divisions and then undergoes ...
cytokinesis
| programmed death
113
(meiosis) only occurs in ..., results in up to ... gametes:
one round of replication + rounds of division
Meiosis I: ... are separated to form ... daughter cells --> ... division
Meiosis II: separation of .. --> ... division
gametocytes; 4;
homologous chromosomes; haploid; reductional
sister chromatids; equational
114
(meiosis) Meiosis I:
prophase I: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, spindle apparatus forms, nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear
difference between mitosis: homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine --> ...
synapsis
115
(meiosis) prophase I:
each synaptic pair contains 4 chromatids --> ...
homologous chromosomes are held together by a synaptonemal complex
chromatids of homologous chromosomes can break at point of contact (...) to exchange genetic material --> ...
tetrad
chiasma
crossing over
116
(meiosis) prophase I:
...: occurs when only one segment of DNA is exchanged between the homologous chromosomes
...: occurs when there are two points of contact between homologous chromosomes and two segments of DNA are exchanged simultaneously
single crossovers
| double crossovers
117
(meiosis) Prophase I:
crossing over is a form of genetic recombination --> can ...
...: tendency for genes to be inherited together
unlink linked genes
| linkage
118
(meiosis) prophase I
crossing over explains Mendel's ... --> inheritance of one allele has no effect on likelihood of inheriting certain alleles for other genes
second law of independent assortment
119
(meiosis) metaphase I: ... align at the metaphase plate and each pair attaches to a spindle fiber by its ...
tetrads; kinetochore
120
(meiosis) anaphase I: ... separate and are pulled to opposite poles --> ..., accounts for Mendel's ...
homologous pairs; disjunction; first law of segregation
121
(meiosis) anaphase I:
each chromosome of paternal origin disjoins from its homologue of maternal origin --> distribution of homologous chromosomes to the daughter cells is .. with respect to paternal origin
separating of two homologous chromosomes--> ...
random; segregation
122
(meiosis) telophase I: nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus --> cells now ...
cell divides by cytokinesis
...: short rest period between cell divisions during which chromosomes partially uncoil
haploid
| interkinesis
123
(meiosis) Meiosis II:
...: nuclear envelope dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate to opposite poles, spindle apparatus begins to form
...: chromosomes align on metaphase plate
...: centromeres divide, separating ..., which are pulled to opposite poles by spindle fibers
...: nuclear membrane forms, cytokinesis follows
prophase II
metaphase II
anaphase II
telophase II
124
(meiosis) meiosis II:
at this point there are up to ... haploid daughter cells
... may result in fewer than four cells if an egg is unfertilized after ovulation
4; oogenesis
125
(meiosis) males are ... with respect to many of the genes on the X chromosome since they only have one copy --> must express that allele
females are homo or heterozygous since they have 2 X chromosomes
hemizygous
126
Y chromosome contains very little ... --> one gene is SRY (sex-determining region Y) --> initiates ... and, thus, formation of ...
genetic information; testis differentiation; male gonads
127
in males, gonads develop into testes which have two functional components: "
...: sperm are produced here and are nourished by ... cells
...: secrete testosterone and other male sex hormones
seminiferous tubules; Sertoli cells
| interstitial cells of Leydig
128
testes located in the
scrotum
129
sperm moves to the ... where their flagella gain motility and are then stored until ..., during which they travel through the ... to the ..., and then through the urethra to exit via the penis
epididymis; ejaculation; vas deferens; ejaculatory duct
130
sperm is mixed with ... to form semen, produced by the ..., ..., and ... g
seminal fluid; seminal vesicles; prostate gland; bulbourethral gland
131
seminal vesicles nourish sperm with ...
seminal vesicles + prostate gland give fluid mildly ... properties so it can survive in more acidic enviro of the female reproductive tract
... (...) glands produce clear viscous fluid that cleans remnants of urine and lubricates urethra during sexual arousal
fructose
alkaline
bulbourethal; cowper's
132
(spermatogenesis)
diploid stem cells that act as sperm precursor: ...
when these replicate their genetic material, they are ...
spermatogonia
| diploid primary spermatocytes
133
(spermatogenesis) first meiotic division of diploid primary spermatocytes results in ..., which undergo meiosis II to generate ... that mature into ...
haploid secondary spermatocytes; haploid spermatids; spermatozoa
134
(spermatogenesis) spermatozoa forms ... for each spermatogonium
4 functional sperm
135
sperm have a head containing the ..., a midpiece that generates ... from fructose, and the ... for motility
midpiece has high concentration of ...
genetic material
ATP
flagellum
mitochondria
136
sperm head covered by an .. --> necessary to penetrate ovum
| this is a modified ...
acrosome
| golgi apparatus
137
female gonads--ovaries-=- produce ... and ...
estrogen; progesterone
138
ovaries consist of ..., which contain, nourish, and protect immature ova
follicles
139
one egg monthly is ovulated into the .. and is drawn into the ... (...), which contains cilia to propel egg forward
peritoneal sac; fallopian tube; oviduct
140
fallopian tubes are connected to the uterus. lower end of uterus, the ..., is connected to the vaginal canal, where sperm is deposited
cervix
141
external female anatomy --> ...
vulva
142
(oogenesis) unlike men, women don't have an unending supply of stem cells to form their gamete. all of the ... a woman will have are formed during ...
oogonia; fetal development
143
(oogenesis) by a woman's birth, all of the oogonia have already undergone ... to become ... which are...
arrested in ... until a woman reaches ...
DNA replication; primary oocytes; diploid
| prophase I; menarche
144
(oogenesis) when a woman reaches menarche, one oocyte per month will undergo ... to form a ... and a...
unequal division of cytoplasm in cytokinesis leaves polar body with pretty much no ... this doesn't divide further and doesn't produce functional gametes
meiosis I; secondary oocyte; polar body;
| cytoplasm
145
(oogenesis) secondary oocyte remains arrested in ... until fertilization occurs
metaphase II
146
(oogenesis) oocytes surrounded by ... and ...
...: surrounds oocyte, mixture of glycoproteins that proteins oocyte and allows for sperm cell binding
..: outside zona pellucida, adhered to oocyte during ovulation
Meiosis II begins when the sperm penetrates both of these layers using acrosomal enzymes
zona pellucida; corona radiata
zona pellucida
corona radiata
147
(oogenesis) secondary oocyte, when entering meiosis II, then divides to a mature ... and a ...
... pronuclei of the sperm and ovum join to create a ...
ovum; second polar body
| haploid; diploid zygote
148
ability to reproduce is under hormonal control --> before puberty hypothalamus restricts production of ... (...)
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
149
GnRH triggers anterior pituitary gland to synthesize and release ... and ... which trigger production of other sex hormones
follicle-stimulating hormone; luteinizing hormone
150
(male sexual development) during fetal period, there is some androgen production to allow for ...
prior to puberty androgen production is ...
male differentiation
| low
151
(male sexual development) ... levels skyrocket during puberty and ... begins
FSH stimulates ... to trigger ...
testosterone; sperm production
| Sertoli cells; sperm maturation
152
(male sexual development) LH causes ... cells to produce testosterone, which allows for development of ...
interstitial; secondary sexual characteristics
153
(female sexual development) estrogens secreted in response to ... --> development and maintenance of female reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics
FSH
154
(female sexual development) in embryo, estrogens stimulate development of ..
in adults, leads to thickening of .. (lining of uterus) in preparation for the implantation of a zygote
reproductive tract; endometrium
155
(female sexual development) progesterone is secreted by ... (remnant follicle that remains after ovulation), stimulated by ...
involved in development and maintenance of the ... (NOT its thickening!)
after first trimester of pregnancy, placenta produces ... and ... no longer functions
corpus luteum; LH
endometrium;
progesterone; corpus luteum
156
(menstrual cycle) cycle during which ... grows and shed
endometrial lining
157
(menstrual cycle) ... phase: begins when menstrual flow that sheds uterine lining of previous cycle begins
follicular
158
(menstrual cycle) follicular phase
... secretion from hypothalamus is increased, increasing secretions of ... and ..., which develop ... that produce estrogen
GnRH; FSH; LH; ovarian follicles
159
(menstrual cycle) follicular phase:
estrogen works by negative feedback to reduce GnRH, LH, and FSH concs. It regrows ..., and stimulates ... and ... of the ... (mucosal lining of the uterus that forms in preparation for pregnancy)
endometrial lining; vascularization; glandularization; decidua
160
(menstrual cycle) ovulation: late in follicular phase, rising estrogen concs reach a threshold that results in ... of GnRH, LH, and FSH
LH then results in ... --> release of ovum from ovary into the ...
positive feedback; ovulation; abdominal cavity
161
(menstrual cycle) ... phase:
LH causes ruptured follicle to form ... --> ... levels rise, resulting in negative feedback on GnRH, FSH, and LH --> prevents ovulation of multiple eggs
luteal
| corpus luteum; progesterone;
162
(menstrual cycle) menstruation: if implantation doesn't occur, corpus luteum loses its stimulation, ... levels decline, ... is sloughed off
progesterone; uterine lining
163
(pregnancy) if fertilization occurs, the zygote will develop into a ... that will implant in the uterine lining and secrete ... (...)
blastocyst; human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
164
(pregnancy) hCG: analog of LH and maintains ... important for first trimester bc the estrogen and progesterone secreted by corpus luteum keep ... in place
by second trimester, hCG levels ... since the placenta has grown to sufficient size to secrete .. and ... by itself
corpus luteum
uterine lining
decline;
progesterone; estrogen
165
(menopause) with age, ovaries become less sensitive to FSH and LH, leading to ...
... also atrophies and menstruation stops
blood levels of FSH and LH rise since ... on them is removed
ovarian atrophy
endometrium
negative feedback
166
all embryos begin ... --> for a male to develop, it must undergo masculinization via the gene product of ..., and ... --> occurs/doesn't occur around ...-... weeks after fertilization
takes about 16-17 weeks to know the sex of the baby
female
SRY; defeminization
6-8
167
(fertilization) fertilization can occur up to ... after ovulation, when the secondary oocyte is deposited in the fallopian tubes
usually occurs in the widest part of the fallopian tube --> ...
24 hours; ampulla
168
(fertilization) when sperm comes into direct contact with secondary oocyte's cell membrane, it forms a tubelike structure called the ... --> extends to and penetrates the cell membrane
... can then enter the oocyte once it completes meiosis II
acrosomal apparatus
| pronucleus
169
(fertilization) when the oocyte is penetrated, the .., which releases ... ions, occurs
this depolarizes the ovum's membrane to prevent fertilization by multiple sperm and increases the .... of the newly formed zygote
the depolarized and impenetrable membrane is the ...
cortical reaction; Ca2+
metabolic rate
fertilization membrane
170
... twins: two different eggs released during one ovulatory cycle, fertilized by two different sperm --> separate ..., ..., and ...
dizygotic; placenta; chorion; amnion
171
... twins: single zygote splits into two --> ... occur when division is incomplete
monozygotic; conjoined twins
172
.../... twins: same amnion and chorion
.../... twins: same chorion, different amnions
.../... twins: separate chorions and amnions
monochorionic/monoamniotic
monochorionic/diamniotic
dichorionic/diamniotic
173
more shared structures btwn twins - more ... during growth and development
risks
174
zygote travels to uterus for ... during this movement, zygote undergoes ... --> rapid mitotic cell divisions
implantation; cleavage
175
first cleavage of zygote creates an ..., which is no longer unicellular
this divides into smaller cells to increase the ... ratio and the ... ratio --> allows for more gas and nutrient exchange
embryo
| nuclear: cytoplasmic; surface area: volume
176
... cleavage: cells that can still develop into complete organisms
monozygotic twins originate from this type of cleavage
indeterminate
177
.... cleavage: results in cells with predetermined fates --> cells that are committed to differentiating into a certain kind of cell
determinate
178
the embryo becomes a ... after some divisions. then undergoes ..., which forms the ... --> hollow ball of cells with fluid-filled inner cavity (...)
morula; blastulation; blastula; blastocoel
179
mammalian blastula = ...
contains ... and ...:
...: surround blastocoel and give rise to the chorion and the placenta
....: protrudes into blastocoel and gives rise to organism itself
blastocyst;
trophoblast; inner cell mass
trophoblast cells
inner cell mass
180
blastula implants onto uterus by burrowing into endometrium. ... allows for an interface between maternal blood supply and embryo
... eventually develops into placenta
trophoblast;
| chorion
181
trophoblasts form ... --> microscopic fingerlike projections that penetrate the endomembrane --> these are what develop into the ... and support maternal-fetal ...
chorionic villi; placenta; gas exchange
182
embryo connected to placenta by the ... --> 2 arteries + 1 vein
the vein carries ... blood rich w/ nutrients from placenta to embryo
umbilical arteries carry ... blood and waste to placenta for exchange
umbilical cord
oxygenated
deoxygenated
183
embryo supported by ... until placenta is function --> site of early ... development
yolk sac; blood cell
184
...: early fluid exchange between embryo and yolk sac --> this plus yolk sac remnants forms umbilical cord
allantois
185
...: surrounds allantois, thin membrane filled with amniotic fluid
amniotic fluid acts as ..., lessening impact of mom's motion on the baby
... forms outer membrane around the amnion
amnion; shock absorber; chorion
186
...: occurs after implantation, generation of three distinct cell layers
gastrulation
187
(gastrulation) ...: result of the process in which cells move toward a small invagination in the blastula, resulting in elimination of the blastocoel
gastrula
188
(gastrulation) membrane invagination into the blastocoel: ... --> develops into the gut
opening of this membrane invagination: ...
archenteron; blastopore
189
(gastrulation) in deuterostomes (such as people), blastopore develops into ...
in protosomes, blastopore develops into the ...
anus
| mouth
190
(gastrulation) some cells will migrate into what remains of the blastocoel --> establishes 3 layers of cells --> primary germ layers:
...: gives rise to integument (epidermis, hair, nails, epithelia of the nose, mouth, lower anal canal, lens of the eye, nervous system, and inner ear)
...: middle layer, develops into several systems (musculoskeletal, circulatory, excretory systems, gonads, muscular and connective tissue, layers of digestive and respiratory systems and adrenal cortex derive from here)
...: forms the epithelial linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts (pancreas, thyroid, bladder, distal urinary tracts, and parts of liver are derived from this)
ectoderm
mesoderm
endoderm
191
cells differentiate primarily by ...
related to ...: ability of one group of cells to influence fate of nearby cells --> mediated by ..., which diffuse from organizing cells to responsive cells
inducers are responsible for processes like guidance of neuronal axons
selective transcription; induction; inducers
192
...: occurs after three germ layers are formed --> development of nervous system
neurulation
193
(neurulation) ... forms along the long axis of the organism like a primitive spine --> rod of ... cells
notochord; mesodermal
194
(neurulation) notochord formation induces ectodermal cells to slide inward to form ..., surrounding a ...
neural folds; neural groove
195
(neurulation) neural folds grow toward one another to fuse into a neural tube --> precursor of ...
at the tip of each neural fold are ... cells --> migrate outward to form ...
central nervous system
neural crest;
peripheral nervous system
196
(neurulation) ... cells migrate over neural tube and crests to cover the nervous system
ectodermal
197
...: interfere with development
its impact depends on genetics of embryo, route of exposure, length of exposure, rate of placental transmission, and identity of the harmful agent
ex: alcohol, drugs, viruses, bacteria, enviro chemicals
teratogens
198
development is influenced by ...
| e.g. mothers with hyperglycemia may have very large children that suffer from hypoglycemia soon after birth
maternal health
199
cells undergo ..., in which they are reversibly set on the path to become a certain type of cell. this designation is not permanent until ... occurs
specification; determination
200
... is when a cell is decidedly on the path to becoming a specific type of cell. however, none of the products necessary for its function as that cell type occurs here
determination
201
determination can occur during .. due to a disproportionate amount of mRNA and protein being split between two daughter cells. it can occur via ... which cause nearby cells to follow a particular developmental pathway
cleavage; morphogens
202
cells that haven't differentiated are ... cells. their ability to differentiate into different cell types is measured by ...
stem; potency
203
...: embryonic stem cells that can give rise to any other type of cell
...: after 16-cell stage, no longer any totipotent stem cells. these, instead, can give rise to any other type of cell besides those found in placental structures
...: have some level of specificity, can give rise to multiple types of cell within a specific grouping (e.g. hematopoietic stem cells can give rise to any type of cell in blood)
totipotent
pluripotent
multipotent
204
```
endoderm gives rise to:
...
...
...
...
...
...
```
```
pancreas
liver
thyroid
lung
bladder
urethra
```
205
```
mesoderm gives rise to:
...
..., ..., and ...
... and ...
...
```
bone marrow
skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle
heart and blood vessels
kidney tubules
206
```
ectoderm gives rise to:
...
...
...
...
...
```
```
skin
neurons
pituitary gland
eyes
ears
```
207
determination and differentiation of cell can be influenced by ... nearby --> these may also be the cell secreting the signal
inducers
208
induced cell is ..., must be ... --> able to respond to signal
responder; competent
209
cell-cell communication methods:
...: acts on the same cell that secreted the signal
...: acts on cell in local area
...: no diffusion, cell directly stimulates receptors of an adjacent cell
...: involves use of hormones
autocrine
paracrine
juxtacrine
endocrine
210
inducers are commonly ..., which tend to act on specific types of cells
...; peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis
growth factors
| growth factors
211
.../...: 2 tissues induce further differentiation of each other
reciprocal induction/reciprocal development
212
signaling occurs through gradients:
...: molecules that cause cell determination (e.g. transforming growth factor beta, sonic hedgehog, epidermal growth factor)
morphogens
213
morphogens move from their origins (region of high morphogen conc.) to areas of ...
multiple morphogens can be secreted at the same time, resulting in unique combinations of morphogens that lead to ... of specific cell types
lower morphogen concs
| differentiation
214
where cells initially differentiate isn't necessarily its final anatomic location. must ... to the proper area of the body
migrate
215
cells that die via apoptosis can be "eaten" by other cells such that its materials can be used
during apoptosis, cell divides into ... that are broken apart into ... --> these are what are digested by other cells
apoptotic blebs; apoptotic bodies
216
membranous apoptotic bodies are also a protective measure, ensuring that ... won't be released into extracellular enviro
harmful cellular materials
217
...: part of apoptosis where nucleus condenses
pyknosis
218
...: part of apoptosis where nucleus fragments
karyorrhexis
219
...: ability of an organism to regrow certain body parts; likely related to stem cell concs and potency
...: lost or damaged tissue are replaced with identical tissues
...: new tissues are not identical to the old ones --> tend to be inferior; this is the type of regeneration mostly seen in humans
regenerative capacity
complete regeneration
incomplete regeneration
220
...: biological aging, changes in molecular and cellular structure that lead to death accumulate
senescence
221
...: limits to division --> failure of cells to divide, leads to apoptosis
may be because of ...,which are difficult to replicate
... allows for extension of telomeres --> reverse transcriptase that prevents senescence
cellular senescence; shorted telomeres; telomerase
222
...: injury to cell that can result in leaking of cellular material which may be dangerous and can lead to inflammation
necrosis
223
maternal and fetal blood can't mix because ...
they might be different blood types
224
some nutrients are delivered to the baby via ... --> water, glucose, amino acids, inorganic salts, oxygen
diffusion
225
the fact that oxygen is diffused across placenta indicates that maternal blood has ... of oxygen than fetal blood
higher partial pressure
226
fetal hemoglobin has ... for oxygen to ensure retention of oxygen in fetal circulation
greater affinity
227
... protects fetus, since it can't develop antibodies yet since it has yet to be exposed to pathogens. antibodies may be delivered from mother, though, if a pathogen crosses placental membrane
placental barrier
228
placenta is ... organ for mother, as it produces progesterone, estrogen, and human chorionic gonadotropin
endocrine
229
umbilical arteries move blood away from ... to ...
| umbilical vein moves blood towards ... from ...
fetus; placenta; fetus; placenta
230
...and ... have pretty much no function prior to birth because gas exchange occurs through placenta and detoxification and metabolism is controlled by mom's liver. blood is shunted away from these organs
lungs; liver
231
...: blood overpasses lungs and goes from right atrium to left atrium (overpasses right atrium--> right ventricle --> pulmonary arteries --> lungs thing)
....: shunts blood from pulmonary artery to aorta instead of lungs
...: shunts blood from placenta directly to inferior vena cava, overpassing liver --> liver still receives small blood supply from smaller ... in the liver's systemic circulation
foramen ovale
ductus arteriosis
ductus venosus; hepatic arteries
232
larger animal: ... gestation, ... offspring
longer; fewer
233
first trimester: .. develop, along with ..., ..., ..., etc. skeleton begins to ... --> embryo becomes known as ..
organs; eyes; gonads; limbs; harden; fetus
234
second trimester: stage of ..., fetus begins to ...
major growth; move in amniotic fluid
235
third trimester: ... are transferred to fetus at highest rate during all of the pregnancy, preparing fetus for life outside; growth rate slows and fetus becomes ... since there's less room
antibodies; less active
236
...: vaginal birth, accomplished by contractions of uterine smooth muscle
contractions coordinated by ... and ...
cervix thins and ... ruptures (water breaking)
contractions allow for birth of fetus
placenta and umbilical cord are delivered --> ...
parturition
prostaglandins; oxytocin
amniotic sac
afterbirth
237
failure of determination/differentiation can lead to absence of relevant structures altogether, whereas lack of ... can lead to improper formation of those structures
apoptosis
238
... organs that secrete hormones
glands
239
...: signaling molecules that travel through the bloodstream to reach a target tissue. they bind to receptors on that tissue to initiate a response
hormones
240
categories of hormones:
...
...
....
peptide hormones
steroids
amino acid derivatives
241
peptide hormones:
all are derived from larger precursor polypeptides that are cleaved during ...
..., so they cannot move through the cell membrane. instead, they bind to receptors on target cells, initiating a signaling cascade
peptide hormone itself is the ..., and its binding triggers transmission of a ...
posttranslational modification
charged;
first messenger
second messenger
242
common second messengers: ... and ...
cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP); inositol triphosphate (IP3)
243
signaling cascades allow for ..., increasing the intensity of the signal
amplification of signals
244
G protein-coupled receptors can either activate/inhibit ..., which adjusts levels of ...
adenylate; cAMP
245
(G receptors)
cAMP can bind to intracellular targets (targets within the cell), such as .., which phosphorylates transcription factors to bring about the hormone's overall result
example of a transcription factor: cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB)
protein kinase A
246
(G receptors)
| protein kinase A can modify enzymes as well as ..., and can consequently have either a ... or ... effect on the cell
transcription factors; rapid; slow
247
peptide hormones have ..., but ... impacts
fast; short-lived
248
peptide hormones, since they are water-soluble, can travel freely in the bloodstream, without ... unlike steroids
carriers
249
steroid hormones are mostly produced by the ... and the ... (androgens)
adrenal cortex; gonads
250
receptors for steroid hormones can be ..., since they easily diffuse through the plasma membrane:
hormone-receptor complexes change ... --> these can bind to DNA to cause changes to levels of transcription of a target gene
...: common form of conformational change in which two receptor-hormone complexes pair together
intracellular; conformation; dimerization
251
steroid hormone are ..., but have ... effects since they alter amounts of mRNA and protein
slower; longer
252
steroid hormones require ... to move through bloodstream -- these tend to be ... while bound to their carrier and they have to ... to regain function
levels of carriers can change levels of ...
protein carriers;
inactivated; dissociate
active hormone
253
most peptide and amino acid-derivative hormones have endings of ... or ...
most steroid hormones have endings of ..., ..., or ...
- in; -ine
| - one; -ol; -oid
254
```
amino acid-derivative hormones include:
... (... and ...) --> bind to G protein coupled receptors
... bind intracellularly
...
...
```
catecholamines; epi and nor;
thyroid hormones
triiodothyronine (thyroid)
thyroxine (thyroid)
255
... hormones: act directly on target tissue --> do the job themselves --> like workers
... hormones: call other hormones into action --> like boss
direct; tropic
256
examples of tropic hormones:
gonadotropin-releasing hormone; luteinizing hormone
tropic hormones originate in ... and ... gland, because these structures are involved in coordination of many bodily processes
brain; anterior pituitary
257
... organs: organs whose primary function is to secrete hormones
endocrine
258
```
endocrine organs include:
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
collection of cells in kidney, GI glands, heart, and thymus also serve endocrine roles, but these aren't endocrine organs
```
```
hypothalamus
pituitary
thyroid
parathyroid
gonads
pineal
adrenal
pancreas
```
259
...: endocrine organ that acts as bridge between nervous and endocrine systems --> located below thalamus and above pituitary gland
hypothalamus
260
hypothalamus releases ... hormones that are sent to the pituitary
tropic
261
release of hormones by hypothalamus is regulated by ...
negative feedback
262
...: blood vessel system that connects the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary
hypophyseal portal system
263
...: another name for the pituitary
hypophysis
264
```
tropic hormones sent to anterior pituitary and their direct hormones:
... - ... and ...
... - ...
... - ...
... - ...
... - inhibits release of ...
```
gonadotropin-releasing hormone - FSH and LH
growth hormone-releasing hormone- growth hormone
thyroid-releasing hormone - thyroid stimulating hormone
corticotropin-releasing factor - adrenocorticotropic hormone
prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF/dopamin)- prolactin
265
...: three organ systems of interaction
axes
266
neurons are directly sent to the posterior pituitary through the .. by the axons of the ...
pituitary stalk; hypothalamus
267
posterior pituitary releases ... (hormone that stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown for lactation) and ... (stimulates reabsorption of water in collecting ducts of kidneys when plasma osmolarity is high)
oxytocin; antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
268
anterior pituitary has 7 products - 4 tropic, 3 direct:
| ... - ... = tropic, ... - direct
FLATPEG; FLAT; PEG
269
```
anterior pituitary products
F: ... --> acts on gonads
L: ... --> acts on gonads
A: ... --> acts on adrenal cortex
T: .. --> acts on thyroid
```
P: ... --> stimulates milk production (... decreases its secretion)
E: ... --> reduce pain perception
G: ... --> promotes growth of bone and muscle, requires use of a lot of glucose and limits glucose uptake in tissues that are not growing -> excess of GH in children before closure of ... can cause gigantism, deficit results in dwarfism; excess of GH in adulthood causes ...
```
FSH
LH
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
thyroid-stimulating hormone
prolactin; dopamine
endorphins
growth hormone; epiphyseal plates; acromegaly
```
270
unlike anterior pituitary, posterior pituitary does not ..., it merely stores ADH and oxytocin provided by the hypothalamus and releases it at the proper times
produce hormones
271
posterior pituitary contains the ... of neurons that have cell bodies in the ..
nerve terminals; hypothalamus
272
thyroid controlled by ...
thyroid-stimulating hormone
273
thyroid has 2 major functions:
setting basal ... --> by releasing ... and ...
... homeostasis --> controlled by ...
metabolic rate; triiodothyronine; thyroxine
| calcium; calcitonin
274
... cells of the thyroid release triiodothyronine (...) and thyroxine (...), both are modified ... that have attached ...
follicular; T3: T4; tyrosines; iodines
275
T3 and T4 regulate metabolism -->
| increased amounts of these hormones ... metabolism --> increased ... and ... and ... turnover
increase; cellular respiration; protein; fatty acid
276
```
deficiency in T3 and T4 --> ...
...
decreased ...
slowed ... and slowed ...
... intolerance
...
```
```
hypothyroidism
lethargy
body temps
respiration; heart rate
cold
weight gain
```
277
...: mental retardation and developmental delay caused by deficiency in thyroid hormones at birth
cretinism
278
```
...: excess of thyroid hormone
heightened ...
increased ...
increased ... and ...
... intolerance
...
```
```
hyperthyroidism
activity level
body temps
respiratory; heart rates
heat
weight loss
```
279
calcitonin is released by ... cells of the thyroid and it ... calcium concs by promoting its ..., decreasing its ..., and increasing ...
parafollicular; decreases; excretion; absorption from the gut; storage in the bone
280
... hormone is released by the ..., posterior to the thyroid. this acts in opposition to calcitonin by ...
parathyroid; parathyroid; increasing calcium concentrations
281
parathyroid hormone:
| decreases excretion of calcium by ..., increases ..., increases ...
kidneys; absorption in the gut; bone resorption
282
parathyroid hormone:
resorbs ... from bone and promotes its excretion in urine --> these two effects cancel each other
activates ..., which is necessary for absorption of calcium and phosphate in the gut
overall impact: significant increase in ... levels and little effect on ... levels
phosphate
vitamin D
calcium; phosphate
283
adrenal gland consists of ... and ...
cortex; medulla
284
adrenal cortex releases
...: these are cortisol and cortisone, which increase ... levels by increasing ... and decreasing ... --> release of these are controlled by ..., as released by the anterior pituitary
glucocorticoids; blood glucose; gluconeogenesis; protein synthesis; ACTH
285
adrenal cortex releases:
...: regulate salt and water homeostasis
... is one of these --> promotes sodium reabsorption in the nephron --> increasing sodium concs in the blood drives water out of the nephron as well, causing blood to increase in ... and ...
mineralocorticoids; aldosterone; volume; pressure
286
adrenal cortex releases:
aldosterone contd:
... increases with this hormone, but ... remains the same, unlike with ADH
blood pressure
| plasma osmolarity;
287
adrenal cortex releases:
aldosterone contd:
aldosterone regulated by ... system. when blood pressure is low, ... cells in kidney secrete ... which convert ... to ..., which is converted to ... by ... enzyme. This then secretes aldosterone until blood pressure is restored
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
| juxtaglomerular cells; renin; angiotensinogen; angiotensin I; angiotensin II; angiotensin-converting enzyme
288
adrenal cortex releases:
... hormones: adrenal gland releases androgens and estrogens
males not as impacted since ... release most of the androgens
females with overproduction of these can have ...
cortical sex hormones
testes
masculinized genitalia
289
functions of corticosteroids: 3 S's
... (...)
... (...)
.. (...)
salt; mineralocorticoids
sugar; glucocorticoids
sex; cortical sex hormones
290
adrenal medulla releases the ... ... and ..., which regulate ...
increase ...
dilate ...
alter .. to supply systems used in ... response
catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine; fight-or-flight
heart rate
bronchi
blood flow; sympathetic
291
... is for long term (slower) stress response, ... are for short term (faster) stress responses
cortisol; catecholamines
292
... tissues secrete substances directly into ducts
| pancrease acinar cells secrete digestive enzymes into pancreatic ducts
exocrine
293
... have alpha, beta, and delta cells that secrete ..., ..., and ... respectively
...: catabolism of protein and fat, conversion of glycogen to glucose, and gluconeogenesis
...: anabolism of protein and fat, storage of glucose as glycogen
islets of Langerhans; glucagon; insulin; somatostatin
glucagon
insulin
294
excess insulin can lead to
hypoglycemia
295
... is a diagnosing factor diabetes:
symptoms include .. (caused by excretion of glucose, and thus of water as well) and ... (extreme thirst due to excess urination)
hyperglycemia
| polyuria; polydipsia
296
...: destruction of beta cells of pancreas leads to pretty much no insulin production
...: receptors become resistant to insulin
Type I diabetes
| Type II diabetes
297
...: inhibits insulin and glucagon and is stimulated by high blood glucose and amino acid concentrations
somatostatin
298
gonads:
... secrete testosterone in response to LH and FSH
... secrete estrogen and progesterone
testes
| ovaries
299
pineal gland is in the brain and releases ... which may have some effect on the ... --> hypothesized that the pineal gland responds to decreases in light intensity by releasing ...
melatonin; circadian rhythm; melatonin
300
GI peptide hormones: ..., ..., and ..
| responses are different for each, but they are stimulated by presence of specific nutrients
secretin; gastrin; cholecystokinin
301
kidneys produce ..., which is secreted in response to low ox levels in the blood
erythropoietin
302
... peptide is released by the heart. acts opposer ite to aldosterone by ... via excretion of ... and ..
atrial natriuretic peptide; lowering blood pressure; salt; water
303
thymus releases ..., which is involved in T-cell development and differentiation
thymosin
304
lungs are in
thoracic cavity
305
air enters through nares and is filtered by ... (...)
nasal hairs; vibrissae
306
air passes into the ..., which is common pathway for air and food. then goes to ..., which is only for air. opening of larynx is the ..., and it is covered by the ... to prevent food from entering ...
pharynx; larynx; glottis; epiglottis; trachea
307
from larynx, air goes into the ... down to the ..., which divide into .. and then to ...
trachea; bronchi; bronchioles; alveoli
308
trachea and bronchi have ... to catch material that made it past mucous membranes in nose and mouth
ciliated epithelial cells
309
alveoli are covered by ... to lower surface tension and prevent them from collapsing on themselves
surfactant
310
alveoli are small and branched, allowing for a large ... for gas exchange
... surround each lung. ... covers the lungs, ... covers the thoracic cavity
surface area
| pleurae; visceral pleura; parietal pleura
311
left lung is slightly smaller and only contains ... lobes. right lung contains ... lobes
two; three
312
lungs require ... muscles to generate ... for expansion
| most important muscle for breathing is the ... --> under ... control, even though breathing is under ... control
skeletal; negative pressure; diaphragm; somatic; autonomic
313
space between parietal and visceral pleura is the ... and contains a ...
intrapleural space; lubricating fluid
314
(inhalation) uses diaphragm and ... (layers of muscles between ribs)
thorax expands, increasing the intrapleural volume, leading to a ... in pressure in the intrapleural space. to equalize the volume, the ... lungs expand, thus causing a ... in pressure in the lungs, and consequently air moves from a region of higher pressure (...) into the ... (the lower pressure enviro) --> negative pressure breathing
```
external intercostal muscles
decrease
higher pressure
decrease
the external environment
lungs
```
315
exhalation:
not necessarily an ... process, unlike inhalation
relaxation of external intercostal muscles results in the opposite process of inhalation. thorax decreases in volume, pressure ..., and to equalize pressure, air escapes
exhalation can be active through use of ... and ...
active
increases
intercostal muscles; abdominal muscles
316
...: maximum volume of air in lungs when one inhales completely; tends to be 6-7 L
... (RV): minimum volume of air in the lungs when one exhales completely
... (VC): difference between the minimum and maximum volume of air in the lungs (TLC- RV)
total lung capacity
residual volume
vital capacity
317
... (TV): volume of air inhaled/exhaled in a normal breath
... (ERV): volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after normal exhalation
... (IRV): volume of additional air that an be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation
tidal volume
expiratory reserve volume
inspiratory reserve volume
318
ventilation is regulated by a collection of neurons in the ... called the ...
neurons contain chemoreceptors that detect ... concentrations --> More CO2 in blood (.../..) = ... respiration
medulla oblongata; ventilation center
| CO2; hypercarbia; hypercapnia; increased
319
cells can respond to changes in O2 concs but this is really only significant during
severe hypoxemia
320
lungs have capillaries that can be involved in ...
thermoregulation
321
lungs prevent invaders from gaining access to ... and allow for control of ... via control of CO2 concs
bloodstream; blood pH
322
deoxygenated blood is brought to lungs via the... differences in partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood and alveoli allow for .. of the gases such that blood becomes oxygenated and CO2 is removed. this oxygenated blood is then delivered back to the heart through the...
pulmonary arteries; passive diffusion; pulmonary veins
323
response of hemoglobin to decreased CO2 concs is to decrease
unloading of oxygen
324
...: regulation of body temp
thermoregulation
325
transfer of thermal energy is regulated through ... and ...
... allows for more blood to pass through the vessels, leading to increased dissipation of thermal energy. ... has the opposite effect
capillaries of ... and ... are used for these purposes in the respiratory systems
vasodilation; vasoconstriction
vasodilation; vasoconstriction
nose; trachea
326
respiratory system can transfer heat to the environment through ... some animals take advantage of this through panting
evaporation of water in mucous secretions
327
since lungs interact with outside environment, they must have some immune capacity:
... in nasal cavity traps potential infectious matter
... in the nasal cavity can kill gram positive bacteria by hydrolyzing their cell walls
... in the internal airways traps invaders. this mucus is then propelled by ... to the oral cavity where it is either expelled or swallowed --> ...
the lungs, esp alveoli, have an abundance of ... and immune cells. ... cells also populate the lungs, and these elicit an immune response when certain substances bind to the antibodies on their cell surfaces. they then induce an inflammatory response
vibrissae
lysozyme
mucus; cilia; mucociliary escalator
macrophages; mast cells;
328
respiratory system helps regulate pH via the ...
| equation:
bicarbonate buffer system
| CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3-
329
bicarbonate buffer system:
when H+ concs are high (..), respiratory rate ...
additionally, more ... will be generated which further ... respiratory rate. this blows more Co2 off, pushing equilibrium towards the left, which decreases H+ concs
when blood is too basic (...), respiratory rate is ..., such that equilibrium is pushed towards the right
acidemia; increases
CO2; increases
alkalemia; slowed
330
kidney modulation of pH by ... and ... of acid and base is more of a long-term pH control
secretion; reabsorption
