Italy, Booklet 4, Consolidating the Kingdom of Italy Flashcards

Question

(Obstacles 6, The Brigands War) - In 186__ there were ___________ troops engaged in ________-keeping, far more than... - Terror used... by 186___, the war had... and the Brigand leaders such as C___________ had fled. - There were occasional outbreaks of violence and lawlessness after 1865, e.g. in 18_____ there was a ________-long rebellion in P____________, resulting in the murder of...

Answer 1

- 1863 there were 90,000 troops engaged in peace-keeping, far more than were used against Austria. - Terror used on both sides but by 1865 the war had subsided, Brigand leaders, such as Crocco, had fled. - Occasional outbreaks of violence and lawlessness after 1865, e.g. 1866, there was a week-long rebellion in Palmero, Sicily resulting in the murder of Gov officials and 3 days of bitter street fighting.

Answer 2

- Imprisonment, without trial, of suspected persons and "relatives of brigands". - Treating those who kept a store of food in their huts as accomplices of brigands, punishing with death or imprisonment.

Answer 3

- Economy in tatters, Policies left Italy with 2,450 million lire deficit by 1861 (since Piedmont took on all the smaller debts of other states following unification). - Had to pay to maintain its armed forces to keep peace in the South and be ready to seize Rome of Venetia if circumstances allowed. However, there was also the need to modernise. - Result was very unpopular taxes and the negotiation of humiliating foreign loans. -By mid 1860's, over 1/3 of Italian bonds were in foreign hands, most railway shares owned by foreigners. - By 1866, deficit took up 60% of state expenditure, Grist Tax 1868 (tax on the milling of corn), led to 250 deaths, 1,000 wounded in riots in following two weeks. - Many peasants were forced to move to towns, led to reduce living standards.

Answer 4

- Sale of land, especially from church. Began with an Act in 1867, in the next 9 years, 9 million acres of Church land sold. - Peasants had no capital to buy or improve land, forced to sell. - Unification did not lead to significant land reform, unsurprising as Piedmontese elite did not want social change. - In South, the great Latifundia owners enclosed more land and removed common land, led to more agrarian problems.

Answer 5

- Faced huge agriculture problems, about 30% of each year's produce used for debt repayment. - Nassau Senior (Economist) estimated that production was the same as the time of the Roman empire. - Conservative attitudes in central and Southern Italy meant there was a distrust of paper money & borrowing was seen as immoral, development was hard. - Only 3 million people employed in industry by 1861, of whom 80% were women and children. Lacked coal.

Answer 6

+ Austria built canals in Lombardy and Milan was linked by major roads to other European cities. -By unification, only 2,773km of railway with the lines built for separate states. - In Sicily & Sardinia there were no railways at all, hindered development. Such as Olive Oil industry in Apulia. - 1865 railways passed into private hands but still required needed huge government investment. + Mount Cenis Tunnel, through the Alps was completed in 1871, Italian network linked with France, this helped to create trade but only in the North. Created a DUAL economy (not unified). + They still had roads built by the Romans.

Answer 7

- Division between north&south remained and were in fact worsened by the Brigands' war. - While a new state had been created, it was entirely based on the culture and systems of Piedmont, caused resentment. - Central gov was non-representative and weak. - Little economic integration between north&south. - Divisions between church and state were at their worst, "Fractious cohabitation".

Answer 8

- The difficulty for the new state was how to introduce complete alien ideas into areas with completely different traditions and cultures. - Historian Mark Clark uses the term of "legal Italy" for those who were part of the new state (generally the N) and "real Italy" for those who felt isolated and betrayed by Piemdontisation.

Answer 9

- Perhaps willingly became involved in Nationalism following takeover of Naples 1861, in eyes of Nationalists, Piedmont would have to gain two missing pieces. - Baron Ricasoli had said upon taking office "we claim Rome as our natural capital and Venetia as an integral part of our national soil". - However, more than half of the Italian army was fighting Brigands in the south.

Answer 10

- Unconcerned with diplomatic niceties, assumed that what had been a success in Naples would work in Venetia. - December 1861, various working groups met to form the Italian Freedom Association. G was president. He toured Lombardy, tried to raise money for Venice. - March 1862, Rattazzi summoned G to Turin for a meeting to discuss possible action in Greece etc to destabilise the Hasburg empire (Austria). This came to nothing.

Answer 11

- He attempted to engineer an armed rising in 1862 & 1864, hoping that uprisings elsewhere in the Hapsburg Empire would draw Austrian troops out of Italy. - News leaked out, upsetting foreign diplomats and forcing the Italian government to intervene and stop G's actions. - He also visited London in 1864 to use the publicity to raise the issue of the liberation of Venice.

Answer 12

~ Italy had to wait for foreign mood to be ready to support her, following the Schleswig-Holstein affair of 1866 where Austria was deemed to have violated the joint sovereignty of the region, relations between Austria and Prussia declined. ~ Prussia & Italy now saw Austria as their common enemy. ~ VEII keen to start a war to distract the population from situation in south. ~ La Marmora wanted to avoid similar situation to France&Pi, offered to purchase Venetia from Austria for 1,000 million lire. Failed, Italians forced into negotiations with Prussians.

Answer 13

~ In 1865, Prussian Minister Bismarck met with Napoleon who promised neutrality in any war. ~ April 1866 General Govone’s mission to Berlin had made a military agreement in which Italy was to receive Venetia in return for her war contribution. ~ 20th June 1866, 4 days after Prussia, Italy declared war on Austria.

Answer 14

~ Italy confident of success with 250,000 men against 130,000 Austrians. Fleet of 12 vs 7 (Austria). ~ General staff were inexperienced, Admiral Persano only led the fleet due to corruption & bribery. ~ Only 25% of the army ever reached the front. ~ 24th June, Italian forces fought at Custoza, but disintegrated after panic and confused orders set in. This ruined reputation of officers, shattered military pride.

Answer 15

~ Persano’s fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Lissa, he lost 3 ships including “Re d’Italia” (‘King of Italy), pride of the navy. ~ Claimed that the fleet had fired 1,450 shells, not scored one major hit. ~ Battle of Bezzeca, and moved toward Trento. ~ Prussians crushed the Austrians at Sadowa on July 3rd and Prussian PM Bismarck saw his own ends in the war had been achieved. ~ Signed armistice with Austria on July 26th. ~ Italy had been deserted by her ally, officially laid down its arms in August 12th. ~ G was called back from his successful march, resigned with a brief telegraph reading only ‘Obbedisco’ (‘I obey’).

Answer 16

- It was a miserable failure, achieved none of the heroism the government had hoped for, could have united nation behind nationalist feeling. - It damaged the prestige of both the army & monarchy. Venetia had come into Italian hands through foreign powers. There had been no Venetian uprising in support of Italian forces.

Answer 17

- Between France & Austria, F agreed to remain neutral in the war in return for Venetia. Austria gave Venetia to France. Nap immediately ceded Venetia to Italy (so Austria wasn't seen to be giving a weaker country land). - Plebiscites, 647,246 votes to 69, no congress to decide the peace so Prussia dictated terms to Italy and Austria. - Austria departed Venetia in October 1866, there was great rejoicing in Venice but manner of Victory showed Italy's lack of military independence and power.

Answer 18

- National psyche. - August 1866, Crispi wrote 'to be Italian was something that we once longed for, now, in the present circumstances it is shameful'. - Caused great debt and this had to be paid for by nationalising Church Land in 1867 and by introducing the unpopular Grist Tax in 1868. Both of these actions increased tension in the new state.

Answer 19

HELP : ~ Geographically closer to unification since Napoleon handed over Venetia, now Rome is the only thing left, Socially showed Venetia wanted to be annexed (647,246), may have revitalised the calls for unity. HINDER : ~ Militarily highlighted weakness of Italian troops (bad reputation). Economically even more debt so more tax & nationalising church land. Only obtained Venetia because Austria ceded it to France (doesn’t necessarily make Italy look strong/powerful/victorious).

Answer 20

1) Last piece of the jigsaw. Without it they weren’t geographically unified. 2) Symbol of foreign interference in their country (France), Italy craved complete independence. 3) It was the spiritual heartbeat of Italy, without it Nationalists would feel betrayed and Italy would have no soul. 4) The Italian government needed to bring the Pope under control. His allocution, Syllabus of Errors and Papal Infallibility had damaged the new Kingdom and they wanted his influence reduced.

Answer 21

- Piedmont defeated Papal forces at Castelfidaro in September 1860 on their way South to meet Garibaldi, so direct negotiations between the anti-clerical Italian gov and the Pope were unlikely, now even more so after the Syllabus of Errors. - Napoleon failed to to protect Pope in 1860 which caused Catholic backlash in France. - Forced a vote on the Rome question in the French chamber of Deputies and Senate in March 1861, agreed to keep French troops in Rome. - Resolve strengthened following G's failed attempt to take Rome in 1862.

Answer 22

- Over Rome between VEII (shows good leadership) and Nap resulted in the September Convention of 1864 whereby the Pope could raise an army of 10,000 for protection and in return the French would leave within 2 years. - Italians promised to not attack Rome and to make Florence the capital instead if Turin. - Napoleon believed that the Italians had given up their claim on Rome and was glad because guarding Rome was expensive. At heart he was unhappy at having to guard the oppressive regime of the Pope when he himself had Liberal qualities.

Answer 23

- Convention led to deaths of 23 people in Turin. - Piedmontese PM Minghetti was sacked, government moved to Tuscany in 1865. - In December 1865 the last French troops left, but returned in 1867 after G tried to seize Rome a second time (Mentana). - This time the French garrison stayed until 1870 and frosty relations between Italy and France persisted.

Answer 24

- G left Caprera in 1862, gathered 4,000 men from his "party of action" and marched on Rome. - Piedmont initially hoped France would withdraw. - Italian gov forced to stop G so that the French wouldn't take action. - On the 29th August, G was stopped in the mountains (Battle of Aspromonte) where he was shot in the foot. Some of his troops were executed. G was pardoned but denounced the King for double standards.

Answer 25

- He wasn't used to being injured and defeated. - Hugely embarrassing for the government, who had wounded and imprisoned a nationalist hero. - Following September Convention (1864), Nationalists outraged that Florence was the capital and not the "Eternal City". - April 1865, Florence proclaimed Capital, G now decided upon action. He escaped from house arrest on Caprera and sailed to the mainland.

Answer 26

- "To capture Rome and abolish the Pope", he hoped that uprisings against the Pope would start but they failed to happen. - France sent army equipped with modern breech-loading rifles back to Rome. G was easily defeated at Mentana on November 3rd 1867. - French back in Rome only a few months after their withdrawal.

Answer 27

1) Failed to realise that he would have to face the French. 2) He would have to face the Italian army who wouldn't allow "bandits" to threaten the Pope and claim the glory of taking Rome. 3) No popular uprising against the Pope in the Papal States because the Church was economically and spiritually vital to the people who lived there.

Answer 28

1) Diplomatic, May 1870, Napoleon sought the basis of an anti-prussian alliance with Italy and Austria, but Italy wouldn't agree to this unless Rome was the prize (which the French Catholics wouldn't allow). Without Italy on board, Austrians couldn't join France and risk another War with Italy. 2) Outbreak of war offered Italy another opportunity that public opinion wouldn't allow to be ignored. France withdrew from the Roman garrison to fight Prussia, and following the defeat of the French at Sedan, PM Lanza gained a formal agreement with Spain, Austria and Catholic states in Germant to send Italian troops on Rome (FOREIGN POWERS).

Answer 29

~ VEII sent Count San Martino to Pius IX with a personal letter offering a face-saving proposal that would have allowed the peaceful entry of the Italian army into Rome under the guise of protecting the Pope. ~ Papacy not happy with that, Pope’s reception of San Martino (10th September 1870) was unfriendly. ~ Throwing the King’s letter upon the table and exclaiming “I am no prophet, nor son of a prophet, but I tell you, you will never enter Rome!” ~ San Martino so mortified that he left the next day.

Answer 30

~ Army commanded by General Cardona, crossed the Papal frontier on 11th September and advanced towards Rome, hoping for a peaceful entry. ~ Army reached Aurelian walls on 19th September, placed Rome under a state of siege. ~ Pius orced his troops to put up a token of resistance.

Answer 31

~ September 20th, after a cannonade of 3 hours had breached the Aurelian Walls the Bersagileri (Italians) entered Rome. ~ 49 Italian soldiers, 4 officers and 19 papal troops died.

Answer 32

~ Rome & Latium annexed to the Kingdom of Italy after a plebiscite held on October 2nd. ~ Plebiscite Results : 133,681 to 1,507 were accepted by decree on October 9th, again the legitimacy of the vote was suspect. ~ Initially government had let the Pope keep the Leonine City but he rejected the offer because acceptance would have an implied endorsement of the legitimacy of the Italian Kingdom’s rule over his former domain.

Answer 33

~ May 1872, the Italian government passed the Law of Guarantees as an attempt to appease the Pope, it recognised the powers of the Pope & gave him a grant of £129,000 per annum. ~ Pius declared himself a ‘prisoner of the Vatican’ even though he wasn’t actually restrained from coming and going. ~ Instead stripped of much of his former power, also removed a measure of personal protection - if he walked the streets of Rome he might have been in danger from political opponents who had formerly kept their views private.

Answer 34

~ Officially, capital not moved from Florence to Rome until July 1871. ~ The Pope didn’t officially recognise the Kingdom of Italy until 1929!

Answer 35

- King of the entire country and the new state was a constitutional monarchy. - Good terms with foreign powers, main figurehead of a stable country. - Symbolised stability of new state. - Parliamentary approval for new taxes, new laws weren't valid without a ministers signature.

Answer 36

- 1/4 of the entire expenditure of nation was on armed forces, kept high so Italy could be seen as a great European power. - Used to crush internal enemies of the state, very active in the South in the 1860's. - Recruits taken from all over Italy to represent the country and to become Italian soldiers, helped foster nationalism. - 15,000 officers, 215,000 soldiers and 2 million in reserve. - Regiments were from mixed states, rotated every 4 years to ensure no divided loyalty.

Answer 37

- Ran the economy, education and the state's finances. - Ran by 30,000 bureaucrats. Relatively free from corruption. - Gave jobs to veterans of the Wars of independence (the Patrioti). Rewarded patriotic Italians, showed that Nationalism and pride in the country would be rewarded. - Created a centralised government, worked to ensure common laws, taxes, education and investment for the whole state (didn't always succeed).

Answer 38

- 69 provinces, each with a prefect who kept order in the provinces & ensured national instructions were carried out. - The Carbinieri (military police) ensured the work of the government was guaranteed in local areas. Supported by 18,000 local police. - Mayor appointed to run each of the 8,382 commiuni (a local form of government). Commune looked after education, public health, local taxes and public works. Ensured a smooth running of the whole political system.

Answer 39

- Address to Parliament, Rome, 1871. "The work to which we consecrated our life is accomplished".

Answer 40

- Lack of capital and skilled labour. Agriculture main industry with fruit & olives being exported, silk produced in cottages. - Power problem due to lack of water, unlike North which had rivers from the Alps. - Removal of tariffs, had protected Southern industry. Caused collapse of industries such as silk which couldn't compete with Northern competition. - Caused widespread de-industrialisation in the South while boosting industry in the North.

Answer 41

- Brought higher taxation, the poor were targeted for tax rises e.g. Grist Tax. - Invest in public works, land reclamation and the military (mainly in the North). - 22.7% died before their 1st Birthday, 50% before their 5th Birthday by 1871. - Poverty, unemployment, higher taxes and lack of land led to season migration to richer Northern areas or abroad to France or Switzerland. Many moved permanently to the USA or South America, notably Argentina. - 1871, 120,000 Italians emigrated.

Answer 42

- Temporal power, important because the Pope couldn't be ruled by anyone on earth. - Church was humiliated after Rome was seized in 1870, even the Law of Guarantees (giving Pope status of a monarch), didn't fully appease the Church. - Law of G gave him his own postal service, full religious power and his representatives at the Vatican had full diplomatic status and 3,225,000 lire per year as compensation for the loss of lands.

Answer 43

- Because it came from a government that he didn't recognise, declared himself a "Prisoner of the Vatican". - Important statement, reassured the international community that the Church's rights were protected. - Recognised the Italian seizure of Rome and sent representatives to the monarch's new official residence, the Quirinale Palace in Rome. - A stand against liberalism, modernity and secularism.

Answer 44

- 1870, 2 courts, one in the Quirinale Palace and one at the Vatican, this was to weaken Italy. - Catholics refused to take part in the political process, meant there was no mass conservative party on the right of Italian politics and for decades to come Catholics were on the margins of Italian politics.

Answer 45

- Chamber of de Deputies and Senate. - Deputies elected to represent their constituencies, however, electorate narrow with only 500,000 (2.2%) of the population being able to vote. - Only 60% of those eligible to vote did so, as Catholics and republicans boycotted on principle. - No party system, the "Right" from north, often aristocratic, supported the monarchy and process of improving Italy. "Left" normally middle class, Southern & anti-clerical.

Answer 46

- Under the House of Savoy meant that Republicans kept up their hopeless uprisings. - On 24th May 1870, a Mazzinian called Barsanti led an attack on army barracks in Pavia shouting "Long live Rome, long live the Republic, down with the monarchy". - Arrested and shot despite a petition of 40,000 calling for him to be pardoned.

Answer 47

- Promoted the unification of geographic areas in which indigenous ethnic Italians and Italian-speaking persons formed a majority, or substantial minority, of the population. (Republicans most likely to have this agenda). - Irredentists in North wanted to free Italians living under Hasburg rule such as Trentio, Istria and Trieste. - Others wanted to free Rome and use the rebirth Italy to create an imperial power in the Mediterranean. - Those on "Left" wanted to agitate against France and in 1870 Crispi called for a return of Nice and Savoy to Italian control. - Thorn in the side of the new state.