Italy, Booklet 4, Consolidating the Kingdom of Italy

Question 1

7 Obstacles to Italian Unity after 1861?

Answer 1

• The French and Austrians.
• Death of Cavour and Political Weakness.
• The Papacy.
• The Southern Question.
• Piedmontisation.
• The Brigands’ War (1861-65).
• Economic and Social Backwardness.

Question 2

(Obstacle 1, France and Austria, FRANCE)
- Even though the … had been declared, unification wasn’t….
- In late 18____, Napoleon proposed… This was … to …

Answer 2

• Even though KOI had been declared, unification was not complete as French troops were still in Rome and Napoleon III would not withdraw them.
• Late 1860, Napoleon declared that if Umbria & the Marches were returned to Papal power and Abruzzi was also added, then French would leave.
• Unacceptable to Victor Emmanuel II.

Question 3

(Obstacle 1, France and Austria, FRANCE) At a convention in __________ 18___ (…)
- Napoleon agreed to… in return for…
- When the Italian government led by… agreed, there was a storm of protest and ____ died… VEII…

Answer 3

• Convention in September 1864 (The September Convention) Napoleon agreed to evacuate Rome in return for the switch of the Italian capital from Turin to Florence, (remove idea that Italians had been conquered by Piedmont).
• When the Italian government led by Minghetti agreed, there was a storm of protest, 23 people died rioting in Turin.
• VEII sacked Minghetti.

Question 4

(Obstacle 1, France and Austria, AUSTRIA)
- They had lost… but they had no intention of…
- The Great Powers also supported…

Answer 4

• They had lost Lombardy but had no intention of quitting Venetia where they maintained a large army.
• The Great Powers also supported Austria’s position to maintain the balance of power in Europe.

Question 5

(Obstacle 1, France and Austria, AUSTRIA)
- Cavour had tried to encourage…
- Austria’s position was also weakened by…

Answer 5

• Cavour had tried to encourage Hungarian revolutionary leaders to start an uprising but it came to nothing.
• Austria’s position was weakened by the increased power of Prussia, who made a free treaty with France in 1862, excluding Austria.

Question 6

By 1861, both the French and Austrians maintained their…

Answer 6

Control over parts of Italy. They were both still militarily and diplomatically more powerful than the new Italian state.
- (DIPLOMATIC/GEOGRAPHICAL OBSTACLES).

Question 7

(Obstacle 2, Death of Cavour & Political Weakness)
- In _____ 186__, Italy lost it’s…
- Italy had ___ PM in the next ____ years including…
- None of them were…
- Neither … objected to … agitation over Rome, in 186__, G set up the … and attempted to attack Rome,
- … was forced to stop him with… but now he was seen…

Answer 7

• June 1861, Italy lost its most successful politician, Cavour died suddenly to Malaria.
• 10 PM in 10 years, including Ricasoli (1861-62) and Lanza (1869-73).
• None of them were the same calibre as Cavour and were largely ignorant of Italian politics.
• Neither Ricasoli nor Rattazzi objected to G’s agitation over Rome, in 1862, G set up the Society for the Empancipation of Rome, attempted to attack Rome.
• Rattazzi was forced to stop him with with troops so as not to upset the French, but he was now seen as anti-italian Nationalism, soon sacked.

Question 8

(Obstacle 2, Death of Cavour & Political Weakness)
- All ministers suffered from a lack of… combined with…
- Farini even tried to…
- The problem was that all the power was… - There was no … as Mazzini had hoped and no…
- Mazzini described the new Italy as ‘…’

Answer 8

• All ministers lacked support from the King, combined with weak parliamentary discipline.
• Farini even tried to stab the King, was removed from office.
• The problem was that all the power was in the hands of the King and no the people.
• No republic, as Mazzini had hoped, and no federation under the Pope as hoped by Gioberti.
• Mazzini described new Italy as a ‘sham’.

Question 9

(Obstacle 2, Death of Cavour & Political Weakness)
- The Government was mostly made up of… An all male parliament was elected by a narrow electorate which made up ___% of the population (…)
- There were ______ members of parliament elected by a mere _________ voters (population by 1870 was…).
- The King even kept the title ‘…’ rather than.

Answer 9

• Government was mostly made up of the educated middle class, an all male parliament was elected by a narrow electorate.
• Electorate which made up 2% of the population (literate, male taxpayers from Northern Italy).
• There were 443 members of parliament elected by a mere 150,000 voters.
• The King even kept the title ‘VE the second’ (Piedmont) rather than ‘Victor Emmanuel I’ of Italy.

Question 10

(Obstacle 2, Death of Cavour & Political Weakness, HOWEVER, SOME CHANGES)
- A single criminal…
- A unified Italian…
- A unified ______ was formed. Schools and Universities came under…

Answer 10

• A single criminal legal code was adopted for Tuscany and a civil law code was in the whole of Italy by 1865.
• A unified Italian Army was formed and modernised under Prussian guidance.
• A unified navy was formed.
• Schools and universities came under state control as a way to create a unified education system.

Question 11

(Obstacle 3, The Papacy)
- In _______ 186__ Cavour faced lots of opposition from the Pope who had lost __/__ of his land.
- Pope was also threatened by the…
- The Pope’s temporal power had been… and Cavour had hoped…

Answer 11

• March 1861, had lost 1/3 of his land to the new kingdom of Italy.
• Pope was threatened by claims of nationalism for Rome as the natural capital of Italy.
• Pope’s temporal power had been largely destroyed by the Risorgimento, Cavour hoped the Pope would give up in Rome in return for Church freedom of action.

Question 12

(Obstacle 3, The Papacy)
- The Church ignored Cavour and so began a period of ‘…’.
- Churches spiritual power was also under threat from… such as :
-Darwins…(18___) and the theologians (18___s), e.g….

Answer 12

• Fractious Cohabitation, uneasy relationship.
• Churches spiritual power was also under threat from scientific theory, :
• Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859).
• Theologians (1860s) such the French Catholic Renan who said Bible should not be treated as accurate.

Question 13

(Obstacle 3, The Papacy) Response of the Papacy to the threat of the creation of the new Italian state was to create the ‘Syllabus of Errors’, claimed that (5) :

Answer 13

1) Church to retain control of education, culture & science.
2) Catholic Church rejected all ideas of tolerance for other religions.
3) The Church reasserted its temporal power.
4) Criticised Liberalism, attacked religious toleration, freedom of expression etc.
5) It would not accept progress and modern civilisation.
This came as a bitter blow to the new state and moderate Catholics who had hoped Pius would modernise.

Question 14

(Obstacle 3, The Papacy)
- In response to SOE, the new Italian state began to… and in 18____ demanded the Church to…
- Situation was made worse when the Pope declared himself a… after the… in 18___.

Answer 14

• Began to attack church property, they made the Church increase taxation to the state and in 1866 demanded the Church to hand over property.
• Pope declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican following the annexing of Rome in 1870.

Question 15

(Obstacle 4, The Southern Question)
- Italy was … … … diverse.
- The plebiscites of 18____ covered up many issues, many people voted against…
- The voting systems were also… e.g. in Nice the “…” slips weren’t… and the…

Answer 15

• Italy was socially, politically and economically diverse.
• The plebiscites in 1860 covered up many issues, many people voted against the tyranny of the rulers and revolts of the peasants, not really for unification.
• The voting systems were corrupt, in Nice, the “No” slips weren’t even brought to the voting stations. The “Yes” voters didn’t understand what they were voting for.

Question 16

(Obstacle 4, The Southern Question)
- Piedmontese politicians had very little… e.g. the ________ Law which…
- Garibaldi’s invasion had promised.. but…

Answer 16

• Had very little understanding of the South, its backwardness and poverty meant it was unsuited to unification.
• Casati Law which made primary education compulsory, didn’t happen in the South since the majority were illiterate.
• Garibaldi’s invasion had promised land reform and improved living standards, but these weren’t forthcoming.

Question 17

(Obstacle 4, The Southern Question)
- _______ & ________ had a long tradition of…
- After Cavour considered ‘…’ Cavour decided to… whether that was from…
- Cavour ordered ________ south to crush opposition following an __________ 18___ u

Answer 17

• Nice & Savoy a long tradition of regional autonomy.
• After Cavour considered ‘self government’ for the South, Cavour decided to crush any opposition in the south, whether it was from those still loyal to Bourbons, remnants of G’s army, peasants hoping for land reform, those hoping for some freedom.
• Cavour ordered Farini south to crush opposition following an October 1860 uprising by Bourbon agents, leading thousands of peasants against Pro G national guards.

Question 18

(Obstacle 5, Piedmontisation)
- New government in ______ decided to impose…
- South’s distinct features made it…
- e.g. Legal system of Naples was changed by ____ decrees in just ___ days in February.

Answer 18

• New government in Turin decided to impose Piedmont’s system over the whole peninsula, indecent rate.
• South’s distinct features made it unsuitable for unification with Piedmont.
  -e.g. Legal system changed by 53 degrees in just 2 days in February 1861.

Question 19

(Obstacle 5, Piedmontisation, Good)
- Divided new kingdom into ___ provinces each governed by a ________.
- All customs were _________ (…).
- Piedmontese constitution…

Answer 19

• Divided new kingdom into 53 provinces, each governed by a prefect.
• All customs were standardised (at least in theory), easier to trade.
• Piedmontese constitution became the Italian constitution.

Question 20

(Obstacle 5, Piedmontisation)
- Showed ignorance of __________ affairs in Italy, in particular towards…
- Cavour had never travelled…policy was therefore…
- Education had to be paid for by attacking the _________, led to the dissolution of _______ monasteries and convents which then…

Answer 20

• Showed ignorance of regional affairs in Italy, particularly towards the conditions in Naples and Sicily.
• Cavour had never travelled further South than Tuscany, policy was full of mistakes and misconceptions.
• Education had to be paid for by attacking the church, led to the dissolution of 2382 monasteries & convents, which then deprived areas of charitable institutions, state didn’t replace and upset religious feelings.

Question 21

(Obstacle 5, Piedmontisation)
- Lack of resources, both… the South became a… and Piedmont had neither…
- Reinforced the impression that… it wasn’t realistic…

Answer 21

• Both financial and human. The South became a drain on the North and Piedmont had neither the resources or manpower to administer the region well.
• Piedmont had conquered the majority of the region, it wasn’t realistic to expect that such deep-rooted difficulties would be solved within a decade.

Question 22

(Obstacle 5, Piedmontisation)
- Wasn’t just unpopular in the South, ___________ had been promised…
- Piedmontisation introduced by…
- Tuscany was able to retain their… (ST)

Answer 22

• Lombardy had been promised its own constitution and it had its own legal/education system + own government but this was swept aside.
• Introduced by La Marmora.
• Tuscany able to retain Tuscan customs and legal systems (ST)

Question 23

(Obstacles 6, The Brigands War)
- 18___-___, Brigands had been… seen as the…
REASONS :
- Collapse of Bourbon rule left…
- New gov of Italy had increased taxes to pay for the ____ billion lire debt caused by…
- The… of the disposed Bourbon King (…) was causing…
- Conscription introduced… took… in 186__ around ________ took to the…
- Many in the West of ______ joined… and were firmly against…

Answer 23

• 1861-65, Bridgands had been bandits, lived in mountains during Napoleonic Wars, seen as protectors of South.
  REASONS
• Left a power vacuum.
• 2.5 Billions Lire debt caused by the war.
• The agents of the disposed Bourbon King Francis II caused unrest.
• Conscription which took young men from their families, where they needed to farm (increased hunger politics). 1862 around 25,000 took to the hills to avoid military service.
• Many in the West of Sicily joined Mafia, were firmly against VEII.

Question 24

(Obstacles 6, The Brigands War)
- The result of these reasons was the … which claimed…
- Made up by the …&… and _________ convicts who escaped… They were
- The Piedmontese deployed an an army of _________ to… By 186__ it was estimated that there were __________ Brigands in the…

Answer 24

• Brigandage and a civil war which claimed more Italian lives than all the wars of unification.
• Made up by the unemployed, the disillusioned and 1,000 convicts who escaped during Garibaldi’s campaign. They were badly organised and managed.
• Piedmontese deployed an army of 120,000 to deal with the Brigand threat, by 1862 it was estimated that there were 82,000 Brigands in the Neapolitan provinces.

Question 25

(Obstacles 6, The Brigands War)
- In 186__ there were _________ troops engaged in.
- Terror used… by 186___, the war had… and the Brigand leaders…
- There were occasional outbreaks of… after 1865, e.g. in 18____…

Answer 25

• 1863 there were 90,000 troops engaged in peace-keeping, far more than were used against Austria.
• Terror used on both sides but by 1865 the war had subsided, Brigand leaders, such as Crocco, had fled.
• Occasional outbreaks of violence and lawlessness after 1865, e.g. 1866, there was a week-long rebellion in Palmero, Sicily resulting in the murder of Gov officials and 3 days of bitter street fighting.

Question 26

(Obstacles 6, The Brigands War)
Measures adopted for the suppression of the Brigandage :

Answer 26

• Imprisonment, without trial, of suspected persons and “relatives of brigands”.
• Treating those who kept a store of food in their huts as accomplices of brigands, punishing with death or imprisonment.

Question 27

(Obstacle 7, Economic and Social Backwardness) DEBT AND COSTS :
- Economy was in… Cavour’s policies of 1850’s left Italy with _________ million lire deficit by 18____, since…
- Italy also had to pay to maintain…. however there was also the need to…
- Result was….
- By mid 186__’s, over __/__ of Italian bonds were in….
- By 1866, deficit took up ____% of state expenditure, so Gov reintroduced the ________ tax in 18____ (…), led to ______ deaths and ________ wounded in…
- Many peasants…

Answer 27

• Economy in tatters, Policies left Italy with 2,450 million lire deficit by 1861 (since Piedmont took on all the smaller debts of other states following unification).
• Had to pay to maintain its armed forces to keep peace in the South and be ready to seize Rome of Venetia if circumstances allowed. However, there was also the need to modernise.
• Result was very unpopular taxes and the negotiation of humiliating foreign loans.
  -By mid 1860’s, over 1/3 of Italian bonds were in foreign hands, most railway shares owned by foreigners.
• By 1866, deficit took up 60% of state expenditure, Grist Tax 1868 (tax on the milling of corn), led to 250 deaths, 1,000 wounded in riots in following two weeks.
• Many peasants were forced to move to towns, led to reduce living standards.

Question 28

(Obstacle 7, Economic and Social Backwardness) LAND SALES :
- State also tried to raises taxes through… Began with an Act in… in the next ___ years, ___ million acres…
- Peasants in the South found that they had….
- Unification did not lead to… which is unsurprising since…
- In South, the great _________ enclosed… and removed… led to…

Answer 28

• Sale of land, especially from church. Began with an Act in 1867, in the next 9 years, 9 million acres of Church land sold.
• No capital to buy or improve land, forced to sell.
• Unification did not lead to significant land reform, unsurprising as Piedmontese elite did not want social change.
• In South, the great Latifundia owners enclosed more land and removed common land, led to more agrarian problems.

Question 29

(Obstacle 7, Economic and Social Backwardness) AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY :
- Italy faced huge… about ____% of each year’s produce…
- Methods outdated, ______ ______ estimated that production…
- Conservative attitudes in… meant that there was… so development…
- There were only ___ million people employed in industry by 18___, ____% of whom were…

Answer 29

• Faced huge agriculture problems, about 30% of each year’s produce used for debt repayment.
• Nassau Senior (Economist) estimated that production was the same as the time of the Roman empire.
• Conservative attitudes in central and Southern Italy meant there was a distrust of paper money & borrowing was seen as immoral, development was hard.
• Only 3 million people employed in industry by 1861, of whom 80% were women and children. Lacked coal.

Question 30

(Obstacle 7, Economic and Social Backwardness)
TRANSPORT :
+ Austria had built… and Milan was linked…
- By unification, was only ______km of railway with…
- In…. hindered… such as…
- In 186__, railways passed into… but…
+ When the Mount Cenis Tunnel through… was completed in 18__, the Italian… helped…

Answer 30

• Austria built canals in Lombardy and Milan was linked by major roads to other European cities.
• 2,773km of railway with the lines built for separate states.
• In Sicily & Sardinia there were no railways at all, hindered development. Such as Olive Oil industry in Apulia.
• 1865 railways passed into private hands but still required needed huge government investment.
  + Mount Cenis Tunnel, through the Alps was completed in 1871, Italian network linked with France, this helped to create trade but only in the North. Created a DUAL economy (not unified).
  + They still had roads built by the Romans.

Question 31

Conclusion of Italy’s issues by 1870 (5) :

Answer 31

• Division between north&south remained and were in fact worsened by the Brigands’ war.
• While a new state had been created, it was entirely based on the culture and systems of Piedmont, caused resentment.
• Central gov was non-representative and weak.
• Little economic integration between north&south.
• Divisions between church and state were at their worst, “Fractious cohabitation”.

Question 32

Legal Italy vs Regal Italy :

Answer 32

• The difficulty for the new state was how to introduce complete alien ideas into areas with completely different traditions and cultures.
• Historian Mark Clark uses the term of “legal Italy” for those who were part of the new state (generally the N) and “real Italy” for those who felt isolated and betrayed by Piemdontisation.

Question 33

(Solving the Venetia Q, 1861-66) Piedmont’s Problem :
- Perhaps willingly become involved… in the eyes…
- Baron ________ had said…
- However, currently more than…

Answer 33

• Involved in Nationalism following takeover of Naples 1861, in eyes of Nationalists, Piedmont would have to gain two missing pieces.
• Baron Ricasoli had said upon taking office “we claim Rome as our natural capital and Venetia as an integral part of our national soil”.
• However, more than half of the Italian army was fighting Brigands in the south.

Question 34

(Solving the Venetia Q, 1861-66) Garibaldi Acts :
- G was unconcerned with… he assumed…
- December 18____, various working groups… he toured…
- _______ 18____, Rattazzi summoned G to…

Answer 34

• Unconcerned with diplomatic niceties, assumed that what had been a success in Naples would work in Venetia.
• December 1861, various working groups met to form the Italian Freedom Association. G was president. He toured Lombardy, tried to raise money for Venice.
• March 1862, Rattazzi summoned G to Turin for a meeting to discuss possible action in Greece etc to destabilise the Hasburg empire (Austria). This came to nothing.

Question 35

(Solving the Venetia Q, 1861-66) Garibaldi Acts :
- He attempted… in 186__ & 18____, hoping…
- In both cases, news… forcing…
- He also visited ___________ in 18____…

Answer 35

• He attempted to engineer an armed rising in 1862 & 1864, hoping that uprisings elsewhere in the Hapsburg Empire would draw Austrian troops out of Italy.
• News leaked out, upsetting foreign diplomats and forcing the Italian government to intervene and stop G’s actions.
• He also visited London in 1864 to use the publicity to raise the issue of the liberation of Venice.

Question 36

(Solving the Venetia Q, 1861-66) Foreign Intervention :
~ Italy had to wait for… following the _________-_______ affair of 18______ where Austria… relations…
~ ________ & Italy now saw…
~ VEII was keen to start a war to distract…
~ However, La Mamora (PM) offered… for ________ million Lire…

Answer 36

~ Italy had to wait for foreign mood to be ready to support her, following the Schleswig-Holstein affair of 1866 where Austria was deemed to have violated the joint sovereignty of the region, relations between Austria and Prussia declined.
~ Prussia & Italy now saw Austria as their common enemy.
~ VEII keen to start a war to distract the popul. from situation in south.
~ La Marmora wanted to avoid similar situation to France&Pi, offered to purchase Venetia from Austria for 1,000 million lire. Failed, Italians forced into negotiations with Prussians.

Question 37

(Solving the Venetia Q, 1861-66) Foreign Intervention :
~ In ________ in 18____, the Prussian minister _________ met with…
~ By April 18____ General __________ mission to Berlin had made a military agreement in which…
~ On ____th June 18____, ___ days after Prussia, Italy…

Answer 37

~ Biarritz, 1865, Prussian Minister Bismarck met with Napoleon who promised neutrality in any war.
~ April 1866 General Govone’s mission to Berlin had made a military agreement in which Italy was to receive Venetia in return for her war contribution.
~ 20th June 1866, 4 days after Prussia, Italy declared war on Austria.

Question 38

(Solving the Venetia Q, 1861-66) The War :
~ Italy confident of success with __________ men against ________, their fleet had ____, A ___.
~ Italian general staff were… Admiral ___________ only led the fleet due to…
~ Organisation so bad that only ____% of the army…
~ On ____th June, Italian forces fought at __________ but… This ruined…

Answer 38

~ Italy confident of success with 250,000 men against 130,000 Austrians. Fleet of 12 vs 7 (Austria).
~ General staff were inexperienced, Admiral Persano only led the fleet due to corruption & bribery.
~ Only 25% of the army ever reached the front.
~ 24th June, Italian forces fought at Custoza, but disintegrated after panic and confused orders set in. This ruined reputation of officers, shattered military pride.

Question 39

(Solving the Venetia Q, 1861-66) The War :
~ Persano’s fleet was destroyed at the Battle of ________, he lost ___ ships including ‘…’
~ It was claimed that the fleet had fired _______ shells and not scored…
~ G’s volunteers did defeat Austrian forces in the Battle of…
~ Prussians crushed the Austrians at ________ on July ___rd, Prussia PM (…) saw that…
~ Signed armistice with Austria on…
~ Italy had been… officially laid down its arms…
~ Garibaldi was called back from… resigned…

Answer 39

~ Persano’s fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Lissa, he lost 3 ships including “Re d’Italia” (‘King of Italy), pride of the navy.
~ Claimed that the fleet had fired 1,450 shells, not scored on major hit.
~ Battle of Bezzeca, and moved toward Trento.
~ Prussians crushed the Austrians at Sadowa on July 3rd and Prussian PM Bismarck saw his own ends in the war had been achieved.
~ Signed armistice with Austria on July 26th.
~ Italy had been deserted by her ally, officially laid down its arms in August 12th.
~ G was called back from his successful march, resigned with a brief telegraph reading only ‘Obbedisco’ (‘I obey’).

Question 40

(The Legacy of War) :
- It was a miserable… it achieved none…
- It damaged the… Venetia… there had been no…

Answer 40

• It was a miserable failure, achieved none of the heroism the government had hoped for, could have united nation behind nationalist feeling.
• It damaged the prestige of both the army & monarchy. Venetia had come into Italian hands through foreign powers. There had been no Venetian uprising in support of Italian forces.

Question 41

(The Legacy of War)
- As a result of a secret treaty between… following the War… Napoleon immediately…
- Plebiscite in Venice approved annexation to Italy by _________ votes to ___, there was no congress…
- Austria departed Venetia in ________ 18____…

Answer 41

• Between France & Austria, F agreed to remain neutral in the war in return for Venetia. Austria gave Venetia to France. Nap immediately ceded Venetia to Italy (so Austria wasn’t seen to be giving a weaker country land).
• Plebiscites, 647,246 votes to 69, no congress to decide the peace so Prussia dictated terms to Italy and Austria.
• Austria departed Venetia in October 1866, there was great rejoicing in Venice but manner of Victory showed Italy’s lack of military independence and power.

Question 42

(The Legacy of War) BAD :
- The war was devastating for the…
- In __________ 18____, Crispi wrote ‘…’
- War also caused… this had to be paid for by… both of these actions…

Answer 42

• National psyche.
  -August 1866, Crispi wrote ‘to be Italian was something that we once longed for, now, in the present circumstances it is shameful’.
• Caused great debt and this had to be paid for by nationalising Church Land in 1867 and by introducing the unpopular Grist Tax in 1868. Both of these actions increased tension in the new state.

Question 43

How did the 3rd War of Italian Independence dependence help or hinder unification?
HELP : Geographically… Socially…
HINDERED : Militarily… Economically… Only obtained…

Answer 43

HELP :
~ Geographically closer to unification since Napoleon handed over Venetia, now Rome is the only thing left, Socially showed Venetia wanted to be annexed (647,246), may have revitalised the calls for unity.
HINDER :
~ Militarily highlighted weakness of Italian troops (bad reputation). Economically even more debt so more tax & nationalising church land. Only obtained Venetia because Austria ceded it to France (doesn’t necessarily make Italy look strong/powerful/victorious).

Question 44

(How did the Italians solve the problem of Rome) The Importance of Rome :
1) It was the last piece of…
2) It was a symbol of foreign interference in…
3) It was the spiritual…
4) The Italian government needed to bring the…

Answer 44

1) Last piece of the jigsaw. Without it they weren’t geographically unified.
2) Symbol of foreign interference in their country (France), Italy craved complete independence.
3) It was the spiritual heartbeat of Italy, without it Nationalists would feel betrayed and Italy would have no soul.
4) The Italian government needed to bring the Pope under control. His allocution, Syllabus of Errors and Papal Infallibility had damaged the new Kingdom and they wanted his influence reduced.

Question 45

(The French Occupation)
- Piedmont had defeated Papal forces at __________ in _________ 18____ on their way south to meet…
- Louis Napoleon had failed to act to protect the Pope in 18____ which caused a… - They forced a vote on the ________ question… in _______ 18____ and agreed…

Answer 45

• Piedmont defeated Papal forces at Castelfidaro in September 1860 on their way South to meet Garibaldi, so direct negotiations between the anti-clerical Italian gov and the Pope were unlikely, now even more so after the Syllabus of Errors.
• Napoleon failed to to protect Pope in 1860 which caused Catholic backlash in France.
• Forced a vote on the Rome question in the French chamber of Deputies and Senate in March 1861, agreed to keep French troops in Rome. Resolve strengthened following G’s failed attempt to take Rome in 1862.

Question 46

(The French Occupation)
- Negotiations over ______ between … & … resulted in the… (18___) whereby the Pope could raise an army of __________ for…
- Italians in return promised not to… and to make…
- Napoleon believed that the Italians… and he was glad since… also at heart he was unhappy to be…

Answer 46

• Over Rome between VEII (shows good leadership) and Nap resulted in the September Convention of 1864 whereby the Pope could raise an army of 10,000 for protection and in return the French would leave within 2 years.
• Italians promised to not attack Rome and to make Florence the capital instead if Turin.
• Napoleon believed that the Italians had given up their claim on Rome and was glad because guarding Rome was expensive. At heart he was unhappy at having to guard the oppressive regime of the Pope when he himself had Liberal qualities.

Question 47

(The French Occupation)
- The convention led to riots resulting in the deaths of ___ people in…
- Piedmontese PM ___________ was sacked, government moved to _________ in 18_____.
- In __________ 186__ the last French troops… but returned in 186___ after ________ tried to…
- This time the French garrisons stayed until 18____ and frosty relations between…

Answer 47

• Convention led to deaths of 23 people in Turin.
• Piedmontese PM Minghetti was sacked, government moved to Tuscany in 1865.
• In December 1865 the last French troops left, but returned in 1867 after G tried to seize Rome a second time (Mentana).
• This time the French garrison stayed until 1867 and frosty relations between Italy and France persisted,

Question 48

(Garibaldi taking action, HINDERING)
- Frustrated at the lack of action, G left ________ in 186___, gathered ________ men from his “…” and marched…
- Piedmont turned a blind eye, initially hoping that…
- When France didn’t, the Italian gov was forced to stop G so that…
- On ___th August, G was stopped in the mountains, (Battle of ____________, against Italian gov) where he was shot… some of his troops were… G was… but denounced the…

Answer 48

• G left Caprera in 1862, gathered 4,000 men from his “party of action” and marched on Rome.
• Piedmont initially hoped France would withdraw.
• Italian gov forced to stop G so that the French wouldn’t take action.
• On the 29th August, G was stopped in the mountains (Battle of Aspromonte) where he was shot in the foot. Some of his troops were executed. G was pardoned but denounced the King for double standards.

Question 49

(Garibaldi taking action, HINDERING)
- Whole adventure was a disaster for G as…
- It was also hugely embarrassing for the…
- Following the _________ Convention (18___), nationalists were outraged that…
- In ______ 18____, Florence was proclaimed the… G now decided upon action, he escaped…

Answer 49

• He wasn’t used to being injured and defeated.
• Hugely embarrassing for the government, who had wounded and imprisoned a nationalist hero.
• Following September Convention (1864), Nationalists outraged that Florence was the capital and not the “Eternal City”.
• April 1865, Florence proclaimed Capital, G now decided upon action. He escaped from house arrest on Caprera and sailed to the mainland.

Question 50

(Garibaldi taking action, HINDERING)
- He took control of his men to “…”, he hoped that uprisings…
- France sent an army equipped with… and G was easily defeated at _________ on November ___rd 186____.
- French were now back in Rome only…

Answer 50

• “To capture Rome and abolish the Pope”, he hoped that uprisings against the Pope would start but they failed to happen.
• France sent army equipped with modern breech-loading rifles back to Rome. G was easily defeated at Mentana on November 3rd 1867.
• French back in Rome only a few months after their withdrawal.

Question 51

(Garibaldi taking action, HINDERING)
HAD BEEN WRONG ON 3 ACCOUNTS :
1) Failed to realise that he would have to…
2) He would have to face the…
3) There was no popular uprising against the…

Answer 51

1) Failed to realise that he would have to face the French.
2) He would have to face the Italian army who wouldn’t allow “bandits” to threaten the Pope and claim the glory of taking Rome.
3) No popular uprising against the Pope in the Papal States because the Church was economically and spiritually vital to the people who lived there.

Question 52

(Franco Prussian War and Final Unification with Rome) The Drift of France towards War with Prussia gave Italy two Openings in the Rome Question :
1) Diplomatic - May 18____, Nap sought the basis of an anti-________ alliance with … but Italy wouldn’t agree to this unless… without Italy on board…
2) The outbreak of War offered Italy another opportunity that public… France withdrew from the… and following the defeat of the French at _______, PM ________ gained a formal agreement…

Answer 52

1) Diplomatic, May 1870, Napoleon sought the basis of an anti-prussian alliance with Italy and Austria, but Italy wouldn’t agree to this unless Rome was the price (which the French Catholics wouldn’t allow). Without Italy on board, Austrians couldn’t join France and risk another War with Italy.
2) That public opinion wouldn’t allow to be ignored. France withdrew from the Roman garrison to fight Prussia, and following the defeat of the French at Sedan, PM Lanza gained a formal agreement with Spain, Austria and Catholic states in Germant to send Italian troops on Rome

Question 53

(The Franco Prussian War and Final Unification with Rome)
- VEII sent Count _____ ________ to Pius IX with a personal letter offering a… under the guise of…
~ The Papacy were not happy with that and the Pope’s reception of _____ ________ (___th September 18___) was…
~ Pius had angry outbursts, throwing the… and exclaiming “…”
~ San Martino was so…

Answer 53

~ VEII sent Count San Martino to Pius IX with a personal letter offering a face-saving proposal that would have allowed the peaceful entry of the Italian army into Rome under the guise of protecting the Pope.
~ Papacy not happy with that, Pope’s reception of San Martino (10th September 1870) was unfriendly.
~ Throwing the King’s letter upon the table and exclaiming “I am no prophet, nor son of a prophet, but I tell you, you will never enter Rome!”
~ San Martino so mortified that he left the next day.

Question 54

(The Franco Prussian War and Final Unification with Rome)
~ The Italian army, commanded by General _________, crossed the… on ____th September and advanced slowly to…
~ Italian army reached the _________ Walls on ____th September and placed Rome under…
~ Pius remained intransigent to the bitter end and forced his troops to put up a…

Answer 54

~ Army commanded by General Cardona, crossed the Papal frontier on 11th September and advanced towards Rome, hoping for a peaceful entry.
~ Army reached Aurelian walls on 19th September, placed Rome under a state of siege.
~ Forced his troops to put up a token of resistance.

Question 55

(The Franco Prussian War and Final Unification with Rome)
~ On September ____th, after a cannonade of __ hours had breached the Aurelian Walls, the _________ entered Rome.
~ ____ Italian soldiers, ___ officers and ____ papal troops died.

Answer 55

~ September 20th, after a cannonade of 3 hours had breached the Aurelian Walls the Bersagileri (Italians) entered Rome.
~ 49 Italian soldiers, 4 officers and 19 papal troops died.

Question 56

(Final Unification with Rome)
~ Rome and ________ were annexed to… after a plebiscite held on _________ ___nd.
~ Results of this plebiscite of ____________ to _________ were accepted by decree of October ____th, against the legitimacy.
~ Initially, Italian government had offered to let the Pope keep… but he rejected because…

Answer 56

~ Rome & Latium annexed to the Kingdom of Italy after a plebiscite held on October 2nd.
~ Plebiscite Results : 133,681 to 1,507 were accepted by decree of October 9th, again the legitimacy of the vote was suspect.
~ Let the Pope keep the Leonine City but he rejected the offer because acceptance would have an implied endorsement of the legitimacy of the Italian Kingdom’s rule over his former domain.

Question 57

(Final Unification with Rome)
~ ______ 18___, the Italian government passed the Law of __________ as an attempt to appease… it recognised… and gave him a grant of £_________ per annum.
~ Pius XI declared himself a prisoner of… even though…
~ He was instead stripped of much of his former ________, also removed a measure of personal… if he walked…

Answer 57

~ May 1872, the Italian government passed the Law of Guarantees as an attempt to appease the Pope, it recognised the powers of the Pope & gave him a grant of £129,000 per annum.
~ Pius declared himself a ‘prisoner of the Vatican’ even though he wasn’t actually restrained from coming and going.
~ Instead stripped of much of his former power, also removed a measure of personal protection - if he walked the streets of Rome he might have been in danger from political opponents who had formerly kept their views private.

Question 58

(Final Unification with Rome)
~ Officially the capital was not moved from ___________ to _______ until _____ 18___.
~ The Pope didn’t officially recognise the Kingdom of Italy until _______!

Answer 58

~ Officially, capital not moved from Florence to Rome until July 1871.
~ The Pope didn’t officially recognise the Kingdom of Italy until 1929!

Question 59

(Factory Promoting National Unity in 1871, MONARCHY)
- King Victor Victor Emmanuel was the King of…
- Monarch was on good terms with…
- Monarch symbolised the …
- King needed parliamentary…

Answer 59

• King of the entire country and the new state was a constitutional monarchy.
• Good terms with foreign powers, main figurehead of a stable country.
• Symbolised stability of new state.
• Parliamentary approval for new taxes, new laws weren’t valid without a ministers signature.

Question 60

(Factory Promoting National Unity in 1871, ARMY)
- __/__ of the entire expenditure of nation was on the… so that Italy could be…
- It was used to crush… very active in the…
- Recruits taken from all… helped foster…
- __________ officers, _________ soldiers and ___ million in reserve.
- Regiments were from… and were rotated every ___ years to ensure…

Answer 60

• 1/4 of the entire expenditure of nation was on armed forces, kept high so Italy could be seen as a great European power.
• Used to crush internal enemies of the state, very active in the South in the 1860’s.
• Recruits taken from all over Italy to represent the country and to become Italian soldiers, helped foster nationalism.
• 15,000 officers, 215,000 soldiers and 2 million in reserve.
• Regiments were from mixed states, rotated every 4 years to ensure no divided loyalty.

Question 61

(Factory Promoting National Unity in 1871, CIVIL SERVICE)
- Ran the economy,…and …. Ran by __________ bureaucrats, relatively free of…
- Gave many jobs to _________ of the… (the _________). They rewarded patriotic…
- Created a ____________ government, worked to ensure…

Answer 61

• Ran the economy, education and the state’s finances. Ran by 30,000 bureaucrats. Relatively free from corruption.
• Gave jobs to veterans of the Wars of independence (the Patrioti). Rewarded patriotic Italians, showed that Nationalism and pride in the country would be rewarded.
• Created a centralised government, worked to ensure common laws, taxes, education and investment for the whole state (didn’t always succeed).

Question 62

(Factory Promoting National Unity in 1871, LOCAL GOVERNMENT)
- Country was divided into ___ provinces, each with a ________ who kept…
- The __________ (military police) ensured… they were supported by _________ local police.
- Prefect appointed a mayor to run each of the ______ communi (…). Communi looked after… This ensured a smooth…

Answer 62

• 69 provinces, each with a prefect who kept order in the provinces & ensured national instructions were carried out.
• The Carbinieri (military police) ensured the work of the government was guaranteed in local areas. Supported 18,000 local police.
• Mayor appointed to run each of the 8,382 commiuni (a local form of government). Commune looked after education, public health, local taxes and public works. Ensured a smooth running of the whole political system.

Question 63

King Victor Emmanuel’s speech to parliament, when and where?
- “The work to which…”

Answer 63

• Address to Parliament, Rome, 1871.
  “The work to which we consecrated our life is accomplished”.

Question 64

(Factors dividing Italy by 1871, SOCIAL & ECONOMIC PROBLEMS)
- South was hampered by a lack of… agriculture was main industry with…
- Power was a problem due to a lack of _________, unlike the North which had…
- Unification led to the removal of ________ which had protected… caused the collapse of industries such as… Caused widespread de-….

Answer 64

• Lack of capital and skilled labour. Agriculture main industry with fruit & olives being exported, silk produced in cottages.
• Power problem due to lack of water, unlike North which had rivers from the Alps.
• Removal of tariffs, had protected Southern industry. Caused collapse of industries such as silk which couldn’t compete with Northern competition. Widespread de-industrialisation in the South while boosting industry in the North.

Question 65

(Factors dividing Italy by 1871, SOCIAL & ECONOMIC PROBLEMS)
- Unity brought higher ___________, Wars of the Risorgimento had to be paid for and… e.g. _____ tax.
- Government used majority of the money to invest in…
- Poverty led to high infant mortality : ___.__% died before their 1st birthday and ____% before their 5th birthday in 1871.
- Poverty, … led to seasonal migration to… Many moved away permanently to…
- In 1871, __________ Italians emigrated…

Answer 65

• Brought higher taxation, the poor were targeted for tax rises e.g. Grist Tax.
• Invest in public works, land reclamation and the military (mainly in the North).
• 22.7% died before their 1st Birthday, 50% before their 5th Birthday by 1871.
• Poverty, unemployment, higher taxes and lack of land led to season migration to richer Northern areas or abroad to France or Switzerland. Many moved permanently to the USA or South America, notably Argentina.
• 1871, 120,000 Italians emigrated.

Question 66

(Factors dividing Italy by 1871, PAPAL OPPOSITION)
- Loss of _________ power was important because the Pope couldn’t be…
- Church was humiliated after Rome was seized in 18_____, and even the Law of _________ (…) didn’t fully…
- Law of G gave him his own… and _________ lire per year as…

Answer 66

• Temporal power, important because the Pope couldn’t be ruled by anyone on earth.
• Church was humiliated after Rome was seized in 1870, even the Law of Guarantees (giving Pope status of a monarch), didn’t fully appease the Church.
• Law of G gave him his own postal service, full religious power and his representatives at the Vatican had full diplomatic status and 3,225,000 lire per year as compensation for the loss of lands.

Question 67

(Factors dividing Italy by 1871, PAPAL OPPOSITION)
- Pius ignored the law because… he declared himself a “…”
- The Law however, was an important statement…
- As a result, all major powers recognised… and sent…
- Opposition against the state strengthened the church as it was…

Answer 67

• Because it came from a government that he didn’t recognise, declared himself a “Prisoner of the Vatican”.
• Important statement, reassured the international community that the Church’s rights were protected.
• Recognised the Italian seizure of Rome and sent representatives to the monarch’s new official residence, the Quirinale Palace in Rome.
• A stand against liberalism, modernity and secularism.

Question 68

(Factors dividing Italy by 1871, PAPAL OPPOSITION)
- From 187__ there were 2 courts in Rome, one in the __________ palace and one at the ________, this was to weaken…
- Also the Church formed its own social organisations and Catholics refused… this meant there was no mass… and for decades to come…

Answer 68

• 1870, 2 courts, one in the Quirinale Palace and one at the Vatican, this was to weaken Italy.
• Catholics refused to take part in the political process, meant there was no mass conservative party on the right of Italian politics and for decades to come Catholics were on the margins of Italian politics.

Question 69

(Factors dividing Italy by 1871, POLITICAL DISUNITY & IRREDENTISM)
- Italian parliament was made up of two chambers : …
- Deputies were elected to represent their ___________, however, the electorate was narrow with only ___________ (__._%) of the population being able to vote.
- Only ____% of those eligible to vote did so, as…
- There was no… those on the “Right” were generally… and those on the “Left” were normally…

Answer 69

• Chamber of de
  Deputies and Senate.
• Deputies elected to represent their constituencies, however, electorate narrow with only 500,000 (2.2%) of the population being able to vote.
• Only 60% of those eligible to vote did so, as Catholics and republicans boycotted on principle.
• No party system, the “Right” from north, often aristocratic, supported the monarchy and process of improving Italy. “Left” normally middle class, Southern & anti-clerical.

Question 70

(Factors dividing Italy by 1871, POLITICAL DISUNITY & IRREDENTISM)
- Unification under the House of _______ meant that…
- On ___th May 18____ a Mazzinian called __________ led an attack on army barracks in ________ shouting “…”
- He was arrested and shot despite a petition of __________ calling for him to be…

Answer 70

• Under the House of Savoy meant that Republicans kept up their hopeless uprisings.
• On 24th May 1870, a Mazzinian called Barsanti led an attack on army barracks in Pavia shouting “Long live Rome, long live the Republic, down with the monarchy”.
• Arrested and shot despite a petition of 40,000 calling for him to be pardoned.

Question 71

(Factors dividing Italy by 1871, POLITICAL DISUNITY & IRREDENTISM)
- Italian irredentism was a nationalist movement which promoted…
- Irredentists in the North wanted to free Italians living under (3)…
- Others wanted to free ________ and use the rebirth of…
- Those on the “Left” wanted to agitate… and in 187___, Crispi called for a return of…
- The irredentists were a thorn in the…

Answer 71

• Promoted the unification of geographic areas in which indigenous ethnic Italians and Italian-speaking persons formed a majority, or substantial minority, of the population.
  (Republicans most likely to have this agenda).
• Irredentists in North wanted to free Italians living under Hasburg rule such as Trentio, Istria and Trieste.
• Others wanted to free Rome and use the rebirth Italy to create an imperial power in the Mediterranean.
• Those on “Left” wanted to agitate against France and in 1870 Crispi called for a return of Nice and Savoy to Italian control.
• Thorn in the side of the new state.