Italy, Booklet 1. Flashcards

Question

How would the church be able to stop any challenges to the restored order? - Pope was the most... - Jesuits + ___________ would have... - Many people wouldn't have known much about these...

Answer 1

~ Pope was most powerful man in Europe. ~ Jesuits + Zealots would have intimidated people, making them not want to aim for a unified Italy. ~ Many people wouldn’t have known much about these other ideas because censorship was imposed and the church was many peoples only form of education.

Answer 2

~ Could unite people who would usually struggle to find similarities because most people were catholics (90%). ~ Pope may be able to get Austria to listen and back down since they’re also Catholics. ~ Spread ideas through education, in huge groups (NEED A LIBERAL POPE, UNLIKELY).

Answer 3

--- Political Apathy : - Everyday living was important, more than political afffairs. - Widespread illiteracy in the south and lord of poverty + ignorance. - For many, patriotism meant loyalty to their state, not Italy as a whole. --- Language : - Language differed between the states so communication was difficult. - e.g. French spoken in Piedmont-Sardinia.

Answer 4

~ Regained influence in 1815 after loosing its power under Napoleon. ~ In papal states, church law was state law and impinged in every subject. ~ In Piedmont-Sardinia, the Catholic church was freed from taxation, had full control over education and tan it’s own courts. ~ Preached ideas of conservatism.

Answer 5

~ Had direct control and it’s network of family alliances and military dependence. ~ Duke of Tuscany + Modena + Kings of Piedmont-Sardinia were all cousins of the emperor.

Answer 6

- Naples and Tuscany entered Alliance with Austria, promising not the alter their forms of government without consultation. ~ Papal states and Piedmont-Sardinia refused to do this.

Answer 7

‘Postal Convention’. ~ Whereby the foreign correspondence of each state had to pass through Austria and was thus subject to Austrian scrutiny. ~ This ensured widespread surveillance, helped infiltrate suspected revolutionary groups.

Answer 8

~ Russia and Prussia were united in the ‘Holy Alliance’ of 1815 with Austria, and hated anything that hinted at a revolution. ~ Britian and France were recovering from the Battle of Waterloo and were in no position to help, even if they wanted to.

Answer 9

~ People of same race, language, culture and traditions. ~ Should not be controlled by other nations. ~ Some favoured a monarchy and others a republic. ~ Disagreement existed about the extent of the Peninsula that should be unified.

Answer 10

~ People should have a say in government, best achieved through a representative assembly/a parliament elected. ~ A rule of law was needed needed which guaranteed rights e.g. fair trial + free trade. ~ Non violent + middle class. Favoured a constitutional monarchy.

Answer 11

~ Much more extreme, wanted social reform and redistribution of wealth. ~ Would use violence to achieve aims. ~ Many part of revolutionary societies, and believed all men should elect a parliament, not just the rich. ~ Favoured a truly democratic republic (women and peasants included).

Answer 12

~ Negative, had no intention of allowing such ideas to spread as it could threaten to break up Austrian empire. ~ Metternich would not allow Italy to exist, as a divided peninsula under absolute rulers was easier for Austria to divide and rule.

Answer 13

Even many educated italians, at this point, preferred local loyalties and peasants were not interested in who governed them.

Answer 14

As dangerous by the Church. - After 1815, aimed to overthrow the restored monarchs and drive out the Austrians.

Answer 15

Membership was : army officers, students, doctors etc (all well educated). - Most were patriotic and daring idealists, dreamers or even criminals. - Were prepared to risk their lives for adventure.

Answer 16

- Not willing to work together and lacked organisation. - They were small and scattered groups.

Answer 17

- The Carbonari. - 60,000 members in Naples, about 5% of the adult male population. - Swore allegiance to their leaders. - Mainly in the South. - Not anti-Catholic. - They were fighting to gain constitutions and more rights from monarchs.

Answer 18

- Anti-Austrian, mainly in the North. - The society favoured constitutional government, but it's program was more moderate than the Carbonari. - Renamed itself 'The society of the Sublime Perfect Masters' in 1818. - Many members were unmasked and received long prison sentences.

Answer 19

STRENGTHS : Intellectual, had a range of skills and links, could educate others on their ideas. WEAKNESSES : Some not fully-committed, not a mass movement so not a huge threat, didn't support each other (segregated), many had different aims and goals.

Answer 20

- In 1833, 12 members of Piedmontese army were executed for trying to start an uprising.

Answer 21

- The French King (Charles X) was overthrown and was replaced by Louise Philllipe. - He promised to act as a constitutional monarch (government). - Some Italians believed the French may support a similar situation in Italy. - (A Constitutional Monarch is one who shares power with a government, don't make all the decisions).

Answer 22

1831 1) Enrico Misley (leading member of Carbonari) led an uprising. 2) Misley tried to get his friend, the Duke of Modena (Francesco IV) to support him in return for becoming the King of Italy. 3) 2 days before supposed revolution, Duke had a member of the conspiracy arrested. 4) Duke then fled to Vienna and pled for support. 5) Returned in March to the Central Duchies with Austrian army, the revolutionaries were crushed. (SHOWS AUSTRIAN CONTROL).

Answer 23

- Organised by the professional classes who hated rule of church. - More of a revolt against the church than a united Italy. - Provisional government was set up (promised a fairer legal system etc) in Bologna in 1831. - Austrians defeated them again.

Answer 24

- Revolutions were local affairs, not national. - No organisation between states (no unity). - Lacked popular support, revolts mainly middle classes, (peasants didn't support). - Divided aims. - Austria had strong military strength. - Didn't use much violence, only weapons were things like pikes and scythes.

Answer 25

By 1831, 5 of the 6 main rules of Italy had called in Austrian power to help them (Piedmont-Sardinia the exception). - Like Francesco IV (Duke of Modena)

Answer 26

1831, no longer necessarily wanted to keep things as they had been in 1815.

Answer 27

- Vitorio Alfieri : - Writer of upper class novels with a nationalist sentiment. - First to use 'Risorgimento' in terms of the political revival of Italy. - Idea of liberty was picked up by Mazzini.

Answer 28

- 'I Pomessi Sposi' by Manzoni - based on past glory and patrioism. - In Lombardy, the 'Bibliotheca Italiana' encouraged use of Italian. - The Journal 'Il Politenico' raised issues of common culture and language. (Disadvantage is that not everyone speaks it).

Answer 29

As late as 1871, only 630,000 out of 27 million spoke Italian.

Answer 30

Congresso Delgi Scienziata, they used Italian at the meetings. - Allowed for moderate Nationalist opinions.

Answer 31

--- THREAT : - Helped spread ideas of Italian unification in a subtle way, this helped slowly grow the movement. - Music could bring people together, bring a sense of unity, which Italy was lacking. - These people were strong, could be good leaders. --- NOT A THREAT : - Many didn't speak Italian so wouldn't be able to understand the hidden meanings. - Separate groups/aims. - Only middle/upper classes would be able to access these places. - They had to be very quiet about these ideas else they would be arrested.

Answer 32

- Middle classes annoyed at nobles who were very conservative. - For the masses, daily survival mattered the most, resisted change that would make their lives any worse. - Peninsula suffered from diverse languages/lack of education.

Answer 33

Still dominated, farming was inefficient and vulnerable to foreign competition. - Starvation inspired riots. - Italy had begun to develop economically, mainly in the North. - Living standards declined after 1810, in Naples the average life expectancy was 24 years old in the 1840s.

Answer 34

- Believed in God but not in a Christianity. ~ Radical views on liberating women and the poor. (idea of wealth distribution).

Answer 35

--- Mazzini Background : - Became a nationalist in 1821, after seeing beggers. - Joined Carbonari in 1827 but was betrayed and put in prison. --- Mazzini's ideas : - Principle of democracy. - Believed all men should be free and equal. - Ultimate aim was a republic. - Believed they should be unified by their own efforts (no french help).

Answer 36

~ 1834, tried to invade Savoy, his general was incompetent. ~ 1844, supporters ‘Bandiero Brothers’ tried to start an uprising in Naples with 19 followers. They were attacked by peasants and many were shot.

Answer 37

50,000. ~ Had to be under 40. ~ Wore a uniform of national colours, armed to fight for nationalism.

Answer 38

~ Gave tremendous impetus to unification, nobody campaigned as long and as hard as he. ~ Great organiser of propaganda, wrote countless articles. ~ Converted many to the cause e.g. Garibaldi. ~ Created ‘Young Italy’ which kept call for unity alive, kept it in the headlines.

Answer 39

- Moderate liberals looked upon him as a dangerous radical. - His attitude would stop Italy from getting support from France. - Ideas alienated the rich as he wanted to redistribute the wealth. - Ideas were too intellectual for the masses, so no chance of mass movements. - Absent from Italy for 40 years in total, became out of touch with the situation. - Lived in London + Switzerland for while. - Very little contact with peasants.

Answer 40

- Moderate nationalists under Balbo believed Piedmont should lead all other states against the Austrians, believed only Piedmont had strength to do this. ~ He wrote ‘Le Speranze d’Italia’, argued for a federation.

Answer 41

- ‘Albertisti’ had developed. - They supported the rule of Charles Albert, Balbo and Azeglio supported it. ~ Charles Albert had introduced financial and military reforms. ~ He would be the new King, disagreement about whether union should be the whole of Italy or just North. ~ Favoured idea of diplomacy with European nations to solve its problems.

Answer 42

- Gioberti was an exiled Piedmontese philosopher. - He believed the church and the pope should head a national revival (neo-guelphism). - Wanted a federation of states, Pope as president, but he hated revolution and made no explicit mention of the explosion of Austria.

Answer 43

1846, Pope Pius IX elected. ~ Liberal tendencies but weak-minded. ~ He reformed education, law etc and ended press censorship. Also allowed Rome a constitution. - 1846-47, he freed 2,000 political prisoners. - He allowed Rome a constitution to replace Papal rule and created an elected body of advisors called the 'Consulta'. (He seemed the man most likely to lead Italy to freedom before 1848).

Answer 44

~ 90% of population were catholic, may bring people together, sense of culture. ~ Austrians we’re also religious, pope was their spiritual leader so might not want to go against him, so big threat to Austria.

Answer 45

~ Intellectual writer who witnessed an attempted revolution against the pope and Austria in 1845. ~ Believed that the events in Papal States confirmed that only leader possible of uniting Italy was Charles Albert. ~ Realised European opinion and public support was crucial. ~ Believed Italian freedom would come from the ruling classes (opposite to Mazzini).

Answer 46

- Modern, liberal government compared to other places served as an early driving force for unification. - King Charles Albert joined Pius’s customs union and supported his reforms of legal system. - A document ‘Statuto’ in 1847, after demonstrations in Piedmont, Turin and Genoa demanding a constitution. - This was influenced by other UK + Belgian constitutions, gave radicals and reformers of Italy CIVIL RIGHTS to stand on. (Influenced by Pius). Might inspire other states too. - Also ended press censorship.

Answer 47

- 1846, elected by cardinals for his ‘moderate stance’. - First act was the highly publicised release of 2,000 political prisoners. - Inspired the masses to gather in Rome and chant ‘oh, supreme Pius’. --- Perhaps encouraged by crowds, Pius made a step towards unification by - Questioning the country’s justice system. - Recruiting a council of lay advisors (non-religious). - Entering a customers union with Tuscany and Piedmont (economic unification), promoted free trade. - PROGRESSIVE ACTIONS INSPIRED CHANGE IN OTHER STATES (like press censorship in Piedmont).

Answer 48

- 90% worked on land, mostly tenant subsistence farming. - Central spark for revolution, farming was inefficient and vulnerable to foreign competition. - Peasants lost long-held land to wealthy. - Harvest Failures in 1846/7 caused maize and wheat shortages, high prices. - Almost no industry in the South, and some cities in Milan suffered from overcrowding, poor housing and terrible conditions. - Living standards decreased after 1810, average life expectancy in Naples 24 in 1840’s. ~ 1836 there were 65,000 deaths from cholera, many Sicilians blamed their rulers in Naples. DRIVEN BY STARVATION, HUNGER POLITICS.

Answer 49

- Anti-Austrian feeling was something most Nationalists agreed on and promoted. - Areas under direct rule e.g. Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia resented high taxation, roughly 1/3 of Austrian Empires tax came from here. - Anti-Austrian/anti-Papal book written by Azeglio ‘On Recent Events in Romagna’ in 1846.

Answer 50

- July 1847 : Austrian troops occupied the Papal town of Ferrara, causing Pope to lodge a formal protest with the Austrian Government. - January 1848 : Denied Austrians right to cross the Papal states + asked lord to bless ‘italia’. - Austria (catholic) appeared to be in conflict with church. - March 1848 : Republic of Venice declared and skirmishes in Milan forcing out the Austrian garrison.

Answer 51

- Long term factor. - Mazzini + Young Italy and other secret societies. - Balbo + Azeglio ~ Albertisti - Gilberto ~ Pope Pius XI. - Cultural Influences of Risorgimento.

Answer 52

A period of Ferdinand II repression and an outbreak of cholera leaves Sicilians in a desperate state. (Social/economic issues). ~ Notices go up in Palmero saying a revolution will begin. ~ Clashes begin with troops, peasants arrive in city to support uprising, 5,000 arm reinforcements arrive. ~ 1812 constitution is demanded.

Answer 53

January 17th. - Word of Sicilian revolution ignited unprising in Salerno (racked with famine). ~ The uprising which was launched by ss saw the burning of public records and the killing of some Bourborn officials.

Answer 54

27th January. - In the face of a mass demonstration on the 27th, Ferdinand yielded. ~ Appointed a more liberal ministry led by Maresca. ~ His troops had to o be withdrawn from Palermo. GRANTS CONSERVATIVE CONSTITUTION IN FEBRUARY.

Answer 55

February 17th. - Grand Duke Leopoldo grants an equally conservative constitution for Tuscany. - Pope issues a constitution for the Papal States. ~ MARCH, CA statuto (constitutional monarchy).

Answer 56

- 18th March. ~ Following boycott of tobacco, Milanese begin ‘Five Glorious Days’. ~ Began with 10,000 presenting a petition for liberal reforms. ~ Barricades soon up with Anti-aus on one side and Aus on other. ~ Austrian commanded (Radetsky) withdraws to fortresses of the quadrilateral. ~ Lombardy asks Piedmont for alliance for protection from Austria. (ANTI-AUSTRIAN FEELING)

Answer 57

22nd March - Venetian republic declared under Daniel Manin, also ask Piedmont and CA for an alliance against Austria.

Answer 58

March 22nd 1848. - Fearing French intervention if he hesitates, CA declares WAR on Austria, invades Lombardy. ~ Troops from all over Italy join CA e.g. Soldiers from Papal states (led by Durando, who itgnored Pius XI who didn’t want to upset Austria).

Answer 59

April 29th - Unprepared to upset Catholic Austria, Pius issues ALLOCUTION stating that the war with Austria didn’t have his blessing, that CA was the agressor and that he had no wish to lead a united Italy. ~ Weakens CA position as many Catholic soldiers don’t want to against the Pope.

Answer 60

- April 1848. - A parliament is elected and declared that Sicily and Naples are totally separated and that the Kings of Naples is no longer their king. ~ Not concerned with national unity. (DISASTER FOR NATIONALISM, Success for Sicily).

Answer 61

~ Moderate ministry under Troya established, persuaded Ferdinand to give more people the vote, to break diplomatic relations with Aus and send a Neapolitan force of 17,000 men against Austria under command of Pepe.

Answer 62

Charles alberts wins the battle of Goito. ~ However, 30,000 French troops have amassed on Piedmonts western border + big divisions in his own armies due to troops not trusting each other because of region loyalty and political aims. ~ CA refuses to accept recruits for army who won’t swear loyalty to Piedmont.

Answer 63

Radetsky sends Prince Schwarzenberg to Vienna and persuades the government to let him fight CA. (TURNING POINT).

Answer 64

July 24th. - Charles Albert and allies are crushed at the battle of Custozza. (Italy’s best hope, piedmont, is defeated).

Answer 65

Piedmontese expelled from Lombardy, on 11th August the Armistice of Salasco is signed. (ends war between Piedmont + Austria).

Answer 66

Ferdinand dispatched a force of 20,000 to seize Messina and the Sicilian parliament surrender after 3 days of intensive bombardment. ~ Earned Ferdinand the nickname ‘King Bomba’. (Crushes Revolutions).

Answer 67

Pius XI appoints anti-liberal Count Rossi as his PM. ~ hopes Rossi will clamp down on Liberals and Radicals.

Answer 68

Count Rossi is murdered by a mob while entering parliament on November 15th. ~ Pope flees Rome, fearing for his life, and goes to Naples.

Answer 69

- A revolutionary government is established under Giuseppe Galletti and they introduce popular measures such as tax reform and setting up of the Constituente to decide future of Rome and Italy. (BEGINNING OF RR).

Answer 70

Constituente meet for the first time and are made up of mainly radical middle class. ~ It announces the end of the Pope’s power and the setting up of the ROMAN REPUBLIC.

Answer 71

23rd March 1849, CA persuaded by Giobertii and Chiodo to try one more times to beat the Austrians, but Piedmonts crushed once again at the Battle of Novara.

Answer 72

Mazzini arrives in Rome. Soon joins with the Triumvirate and reforms Roman laws, clears slums, ends church control of the press etc. ~ In power, head of RR.

Answer 73

- March 1849, Charles Albert abdicates, replaced by his son Victor Emmanuel II. (under control of Austrian mother and wife, no longer supports unification).

Answer 74

- Ferdinand abolished the parliament of Naples, orders his forces in Sicily to take the offensive. - Leaders abandon losing cause. Sicily and Naples are reunited. (END OF REVOLUTIONS IN THE SOUTH).

Answer 75

At a meeting with his cardinals, Pius XI calls for foreign support to help restore Papal power in Rome.

Answer 76

Louis Napoleon (new President of France), wanted to win support of Catholics. ~ Sent troops with orders to crush the Roman Republic. ~ Arrives in Italy on 24th April, marches to Rome, blocked for 2 months by a heroic band of volunteers led by Garibaldi.

Answer 77

June, Triumvirate issues a constitution for Rome but it’s too late. ~ Outside city, 20,000 French troops are putting city under siege. Garibaldi speech ‘Hunger, thirst, forced marches, battles and death’.

Answer 78

- 3rd July, French enter the city. - Garibaldi escapes with 400 followers, marches to San Marino. - Mazzini appeals to the people of Rome on 5th July before escaping to exile in London.

Answer 79

- Peace is signed between Austria and Piedmont with Piedmont paying reparations of 65 Million French Francs.

Answer 80

- AUSTRIAN + FRENCH INTERVENTION. - REACTION OF THE PAPCY. - PIEDMONT'S WEAKNESS. - LACK OF REVOLUTIONARY UNITY AND POPULAR SUPPORT. judgement : foreign powers...

Answer 81

- Lack of popular support (1830, Mazzini, 1848, Allocution). - Foreign Involvement (1830, Francis IV Austrians, 1848, Austrians and French). - Weakness of revolutionaries (1830, SS, 1848, poorly trained troops, lack of coordination).

Answer 82

- Lack of strong leadership (reform, Triumvirate constitution, Garibaldi). - Role of Foreign Powers (20,000 French, Austria). - Revolutionary weakness and lack of support (90% catholic so not popular cause, Rossi murdered so popular? YI weak).

Answer 83

- Austrian opposition (Metternich, Francis IV). - Socio-economic divides (Naples 24, cholera, riots, illiterate). - Divisions (Geoberti, Mazzini, Federati). - Weakness of Nationalism (SS, cultural differences, Risorgimento). - Overall, Austrian principle reason, however divides helped them.

Answer 84

- Nationalism (Mazzini, Balbo, Risorgimento). - Social Discontent & economic problems (illiteracy). - Reforms of Pius IX. - Growth of Liberalism (statuto). - Unpopularity of Austrians (postal, pope). Overall : Nationalism couldn't spark rev on its own, however combined with...

Answer 85

HELPED : - Statuto, 30,000 went P, LT. - Political clarity, understanding they need to be more inclusive, foreign involvement. - The Roman Republic : Emblematic of wider movement within Italy, showed it was possible, however in LT didn't help, French entrenched. HINDERED : - Reactionary leaders, Duke Francis IV, Austrian links. - Foreign control, French entrenched in Rome. - Political Apathy/elitism, Mazzini's ideas alienating, poor living. Overall : ST, little progress politically due to presence of A & F, however by 1849, important lessons had been learned. Socially, very little changed, South different to North.