Issues (Issues and Debates)

Question 1

Define Universality.

Answer 1

An underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experiences and upbringing.

Question 2

Define Bias.

Answer 2

The tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way from others,

Question 3

Define Gender Bias.

Answer 3

Psychological research or theory that offers a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women (usually women). I.E the representation of one gender only.

Question 4

Define Alpha Bias.

Answer 4

The attempt to exaggerate or overestimate the differences between the genders,

Question 5

Define Beta Bias.

Answer 5

The attempt to downplay or underestimate the difference between genders.

Question 6

Define Androcentrsim.

Answer 6

When men’s behaviour is the standard against women’s’ behaviour is compared. Female behaviour is often judged to be ;abnormal, ‘deficient’ or inferior by comparison.

Question 7

What is important to note about gender bias?

Answer 7

Not necessarily a conscious process. Researchers may think they’ve been objective and value free but due to their backgrounds they may view the world in a particular way.

Question 8

Give an example & explanation of alpha bias.

Answer 8

Sociobiological theory - explain human sexual attraction and behaviour through principal of ‘survival efficiency’.

Question 9

Give an example & explanation of beta bias.

Answer 9

Fight/flight response - research was exclusively on male animals but results said to be universal to females

Question 10

Give an example & explanation of androcentrism.

Answer 10

Pre-menstrual Syndrome - Objected as stereotypes and trivialises female emotion especially anger (rational response for men) - so explained in hormonal terms.

Question 11

Give a consequence of gender bias (MISLEADING ASSUMPTION)

Answer 11

Creates misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices.
Using male standard makes them seem abnormal
Research may unknowingly provide a way for male dominated society to deny women opportunities.
Not just a methodological approach but may be damaging for women in real world.

Question 12

Give another consequence of gender bias (RESULT OF SEXISM))

Answer 12

May occur in research process as a result of sexism.
Lack of women appointed senior research levels.
So female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions that are asked.
Denmark (1998) argued that this means that psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research,

Question 13

Give a solution of gender bias (NON-GENDER BIAS)

Answer 13

Feminist commentators have suggested criteria to ensure non gender bias research. Worrell (1992) used alternate methods to explore personal lives of women.
Considering them in their natural settings, collaborating with participants to explore personally relevant variables and studying diverse samples.
This helps reduce investigator effects so producing more valid data.

Question 14

Give a second solution of gender bias (INCREASE BIAS)

Answer 14

Recognition of the researcher’s values and assumptions = increased reflexivity.
Dambrin & Lambert (2008) - lack of women in executive positions (accountancy firms). Reflection of how gender-related experiences influence their reading of events.
Academics embracing their biases. Important in development as greater awareness of personal bias and shaping future research.

Question 15

Give a third solution of gender bias (BIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES)

Answer 15

Feminist psychology accept biological differences but look how to reduce them.
Eagly (1978) claims females are less effective leaders. Research concluded there needs to be development of training programmes to reduce the lack of female leaders in the world.
Demonstrates recognising gender bias can improve individuals’ experiences.

Question 16

Define Culture Bias.

Answer 16

Overlooking culture differences by looking at human behaviour from the perspective of your own culture.

Question 17

Define Ethnocentrism.

Answer 17

A type of cultural bias that involves judging others by the standards and values of one’s own culture.

Question 18

Define Cultural Relativism.

Answer 18

The idea that human behaviour can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts.

Question 19

Define Imposed Etic.

Answer 19

A test, measure or theory devised in one culture that is used to explain behaviour in another culture.

Question 20

Define Research Tradition.

Answer 20

The familiarity a certain culture has with taking part in psychological investigations.

Question 21

Define Collectivist Culture.

Answer 21

Refers to cultures such as India and China that are said to be more conformist and group-oriented.

Question 22

Define Individualistic Culture.

Answer 22

Refers to Western countries (like the US) that are thought to be more independent.

Question 23

Define Etic Approach.

Answer 23

Studying behaviour across many cultures in order to find universal human behaviours.

Question 24

Define Culture Bound Syndromes.

Answer 24

Groups of syndromes classified as treatable illnesses in certain cultures that are not recognised as such in the West.

Question 25

Define in Emic Approach.

Answer 25

Studying cultures in isolation by identifying behaviours that are specific to that culture.

Question 26

Research & theories are is usually proposed and performed by white middle class men.
Why is this a problem?

Answer 26

Restricted to particular parts of the world. - psychologists say we’ve discovered ‘facts’ and said they’re universal.
Asch & Milgram - Different results when carried out elsewhere.
Norm of one culture = standard but differences in behaviour elsewhere would be ‘abnormal’ (culture bias)

Question 27

Give an example of ethnocentrism.

Answer 27

Strange Situation - American infants were ideal under the ‘securely attached’ category.
Misinterpretation of child rearing practices elsewhere (Germany/Japan)
Inappropriate measure of attachment for non-US children.

Question 28

How is the Strange Situation an example of imposed etic?

Answer 28

Assuming it was the ‘norm’ for classifying attachment, Ainsworth imposed her own cultural understanding on the rest of the world.

Question 29

Describe Berry’s distinction made about approaching human behviour.

Answer 29

Psychology is guilty of imposing an etic approach.
Theories, models and concepts thought to be universal but they came through emic research in a single culture.
Psychologists should be more mindful of cultural relativism of their research. It only makes sense from perspective of culture they were discovered.
Recognising cultural relativism, cultural bias in research can be reduced.

Question 30

Give examples of cultural relativism.

Answer 30

Schizophrenia Auditory Hallucinations (West Africa Vs. UK)
Brain Fag - Difficulty concentrating, remembering and thinking (West Africa)
Koro - belief that the penis is retracting into the body (China)
Anorexia - not found in many other non-western cultures.

Question 31

Give a consequence of culture bias (DIFFERENT CULTURE ATTITUDES)

Answer 31

• Significant real-world effects by amplifying and validating damaging stereotypes.
• US Army did IQ test before WW1 (culturally bias towards dominant white majority).
• Showed African American bottom of IQ.
• Negative effect on attitudes towards them.

Question 32

Give a consequence of culture bias (UNIVERSAL & CULTURALLY SPECIFIC BEHAVIOUR)

Answer 32

All research isn’t culturally relative as some thought to be universal behaviours. Caregiver-infant interactions (interactional synchrony) thought to be universal. Full understanding of human behaviour requires study of both universal and culturally specific behaviour,

Question 33

Give a solution of culture bias (REPRESENTING OTHER CULTURES)

Answer 33

A way to deal with cultural bias is to recognise when it occurs. Smith & Bond (1998) survey of European textbooks on social psychology found 66% were American, 32% European and 2% rest of the world. Suggests research is severely unrepresentative and can be greatly improved by selecting different cultural groups.

Question 34

Give a solution of culture bias (BECOME MORE OPEN-MINDED)

Answer 34

Contemporary psychologists more open-minded & well travelled
Increased understanding of other cultures (personally & professionally).
E.G. International conferences increase the exchange of ideas. Helps reduce ethnocentrism and enables more nuanced understanding and appreciation of cultural relativism.

Question 35

Give a solution of culture bias (CULTURE-BOUND SYNDROMES)

Answer 35

1994 DSM included short appendix on CBS found in other parts of the world. Now includes illnesses like brain fag and koro. Early versions of American DSM ignored mental disorders found mainly/exclusively in non-American cultures. Therefore there’s been more awareness of cultural bias and works to reduce it.

Question 36

Define Ethical Guidelines.

Answer 36

A set of principles set out by the BPS to help psychologists behave with honesty and integrity.
Includes protection from harm, informed consent and right to withdraw.

Question 37

Define Ethical Issues.

Answer 37

Arise when one or more ethical guidelines broken and when conflicts exists between rights of participants in and goals of researchers to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data.

Question 38

Define Ethical Implications.

Answer 38

Impact of psychological research in terms of the rights of other people (especially participants). Includes at a societal level, influencing public policy and/or in the way in which certain groups of people are regarded.
Wider context - positive or negative implication

Question 39

Define Social Sensitivity.

Answer 39

Studies where there are potential consequences/implications either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research.

Question 40

Give an example and negative ethical implication of a scientific study.

Answer 40

Milgram (1963) - (‘end justifies the means’). Participants deceived so unable to give fully informed consent. Also caused significant distress and participants were told told/coerced to continue against their will.
BUT follow-up 1 yr later = no long-term effects.

Question 41

How could Milgram’s Study have had positive ethical implications?

Answer 41

Showed Germans weren’t different and may have helped change perception of those who followed Hilter as ‘evil’.
So been useful in reducing negative labels attached to a nation. Also helpful in understanding how people are made to obey.

Question 42

Give negative ethical implication of a theory.

Answer 42

Bowlby’s Monotopic Theory
No ethical issues. But suggests children from special attachment bond. AND that this bond affects future relationships (internal working model)
Encouraged view mother’s place is at home. Makes mother’s feel guilty for wanting to return to work following childbirth.

Question 43

How could Bowlby’s Theory have had positive ethical implications?

Answer 43

Contributed to development of child rearing practices.

Question 44

How is Milgram’s Obedience Study Socially Sensitive?

Answer 44

The findings of the study could be used to make people obey orders that they do not want to follow. This could have severe ethical implications.

Question 45

How is Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory Socially Sensitive?

Answer 45

It could be used to make mothers stay at home out of guilt and fear of being judged by others.

Question 46

What did Sieber and Stanley do in 1988?

Answer 46

Identified 4 aspects in the scientific research process that raise ethical implications in socially sensitive research. They should be ideally considered before research is carried out.

Question 47

Name the 4 aspects in the scientific research process that need to be considered.

Answer 47

The Research Question
The Methodology Used
The Institutional Context
Interpretation and Application of Findings

Question 48

Describe ‘The Research Question’.

Answer 48

Researcher must consider their question carefully. Asking Qs like ‘Are there racial differences in IQ?’ or ‘Is intelligence inherited?’ may be damaging to members of particular groups.

Question 49

Describe ‘The Methodology Used’.

Answer 49

Researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participant, their right to confidentiality and anonymity. E.g if someone admit to committing a crime, should the confidentiality be maintained?

Question 50

Describe ‘The Institutional Context’ .

Answer 50

Be mindful how data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research. If the research funded by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings.

Question 51

Describe ‘Interpretation and Application of Findings’.

Answer 51

Need to consider how findings might be interpreted & applied in real-world.
Could data/results be used to inform policy? Could research be seen as giving ‘scientific’ credence to prejudice and discrimination?
What could happen if the research was used for the wrong purpose?

Question 52

Describe Cyril Burt/what he did.

Answer 52

Used identical twins to support view that intelligence is largely genetic.
Greatly influenced the Hadow Report (1926). Led to the 11+ exam (1944-1976).
Generations of children were affected by the 11+ exam, despite huge controversy whether Burt falsified his research data.

Question 53

How does Cyril Burt’s research link with Sieber and Stanley’s stages?

Answer 53

‘Research Question’ - Intelligence (damaging)
‘Methodology Used’ - Data was fabricated
‘Institutional Context’ - University of Liverpool + London City Council (Be mindful of intended use)
‘Interpretation & Application of Findings’ - Creation of 11+ despite controversy.

Question 54

Give a limitation of ethical implications (SUPPORTING DISCRIMINATORY PRACTICES)

Answer 54

Socially sensitive research has supported discriminatory practices.
America (1920’s + 1930’s), approved compulsory sterilisation laws of ‘feeble-minded’.
Based on research suggesting people ‘unfit to breed’. Shows socially sensitive research has negative impacts and used inappropriately to ‘support’ discriminatory practices.

Question 55

Give a limitation of ethical implications (RESEARCH THAT’S IMPORTANT)

Answer 55

Psychologists free to carry out research important to them. Problematic if governments prohibit certain ones (race-related research) due to social sensitivity. Danger research stopped for political than ethical reasons. May need to be more mindful that the benefits of the social sensitivity research must outweigh the costs.

Question 56

Give a strength of ethical implications (BENEFITS SOCIETY)

Answer 56

Socially sensitive research can benefit society. Promote more sensitivity & understanding of underrepresented groups and issues.
E.G effect culture bias has on schizophrenia diagnosis regarding auditory hallucinations experienced by African and West Indian individuals.
Reduces prejudice and encourages acceptance demonstrating positive outcomes of socially sensitive research.

Question 57

Give a strength of ethical implications (PREVENTING MISCARRIAGES OF JUSTICE)

Answer 57

Prevent miscarriages of justice within the legal system. Research into unreliability of eyewitness testimony (Ronald Cotton) shows socially sensitive research valuable role & positive consequence. This is despite negative impacts on individuals in EWT trials.

Question 58

Give a strength of ethical implications (REALISATION OF ISSUES)

Answer 58

Realisation of issues has meant researchers are more reflexive. Includes thinking more about what the research findings are likely used for. As a result, more responsibility taken for findings and ensuring work done doesn’t lead to abuse/discrimination.