issues and debates

Question 1

gender bias

Answer 1

the differential treatment/ or representation of male and females, based on stereotypes and not real life differences.

Question 2

alpha bias

Answer 2

refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females.

Question 3

beta bias

Answer 3

refers to studies which minimise or ignore the differences between men and women. these theories assume that the findings from males apply equally to females.

Question 4

androcentrism

Answer 4

theories which are centred on, or focus on males

Question 5

gynocentrism

Answer 5

theories which are centred on , or focused on females

Question 6

exampels of alpha bias (Freud)

Answer 6

argues that there are genuine psychological differences between men and women . he viewed femininity as failed form of musicality.

Question 7

example of beta bias (Taylor)

Answer 7

found that females adopt a “tend and befriend” response in stressful/dangerous situations. women
are more likely to protect their offspring and form other alliances with other women. rather than fight or flee.

Question 8

examples of andocentrism

Answer 8

the results of beta bias in a psychological research is that we end up with a view of human nature is supposed to apply to men and women alike, but in fact has an androcentrism view such as Asch study on conformity

Question 9

AO3 misleading assumptions gender bias

Answer 9

gender bias may create misleading information about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes.
it may provide scientific justification to dent women’s opportunities in wider society.
methodological problem but may have damaging consequences that women lives such as prejudice and discrimination

Question 10

limitations Bem (1994)

Answer 10

have argued that females differences are viewed as female disadvantages lowering their self-esteem and putting them under pressure to improve themselves

Question 11

limitations of gender bias Maccoby and Jacklin (1994)

Answer 11

found that there are no significant differences men women. the differences are due to methodological l issues with the research studies

Question 12

strength to gender bias

Answer 12

Eagly acknowledged that women may be less effective leaders than men, but this knowledge should be used to develop suitable training to help address this. modern psychology doesn’t have a gender bias but it should be used to help women rather than oppress them

Question 13

cultural bias

Answer 13

Is when researchers misrepresent the differences between cultures

Question 14

alpha bias (cultural bias)

Answer 14

theory assumes that cultural groups are profoundly different

Question 15

beta bias ( cultural bias )

Answer 15

real cultural differences are ignored or minimised.

Question 16

cultural relativism

Answer 16

A persons behaviour must be understood from their own cultural perspective

Question 17

ethnocentric relativism

Answer 17

seeing the world from one’s own cultural perspective and believing its normal and correct

Question 18

examples of ethnocentric relativism

Answer 18

Ainsworths strange situation. the strange situation was developed to asses attachment types, and many researchers assume that the strange situation has the same meaning for the infants in the other cultures, as it does for American children

Question 19

example of cultural relativism

Answer 19

the meaning of intelligence is different in every country. Sternberg pointed out coordination skills that may be essential to life in a preliterate society may be mostly irrelevant to intelligent behaviour for most people in a literate and more “developed “society.

Question 20

determinism

Answer 20

The view that we never have control over our behaviour

Question 21

hard determinism

Answer 21

this is the view that forces outside of our control (eg biology or past experiences) shape our behaviour. hard determinism is seen as incompatible with free will.

Question 22

soft determinism

Answer 22

this is the behaviour that constrained by the environment or biological make up, but only to a certain extent are there elements of free will in all behaviour

Question 23

free will

Answer 23

Free will is when we have full control over our behaviour

Question 24

biological determination

Answer 24

refers to the idea that not all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes

Question 25

innate

Answer 25

within us

Question 26

example of biological determination

Answer 26

biological approaches suggest that OCD is partially genetic. Nestadt et al found that people with first-degree relatives who suffer from OCD are five times more likely to suffer from OCD at some parts in their lives.

Question 27

environmental determination

Answer 27

view that behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. therefore, behaviour is caused by previous experience learned thorough classical or operant conditioning

Question 28

Physic Determinism

Answer 28

claims that human behaviour is a result of childhoods experiences and innate drives (ID, Ego and superego), as in Freud’s model of psychological development

Question 29

example of environmental determinism

Answer 29

the behaviour approach suggests that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning and therefore, to some extent environmentally determined

Question 30

example of physic determinism

Answer 30

psychodynamic approach suggests that gender behaviours are acquired during the phallic stage of development, through the resolution of the Oedipus complex, where children identity with the same sex parent

Question 31

Hereditary

Answer 31

(Genetic inheritance) is the process in which traits are passed down from one generation to the next

Question 32

Nature

Answer 32

Behaviour is shaped by innate characteristics which may be present at birth.

Question 33

Nurture

Answer 33

Behaviour is shaped by the environment, for example the circumstances of of upbringing and learning

Question 34

The interactionist approach

Answer 34

Is the view that both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour

Question 35

Nature examples

Answer 35

Bowlby proposed that children came into the world biologically programmed to form attachments because this will help unemployed survive

This suggests that attachment behaviours are naturally selected and passed on as a result of genetic inheritance (heredity mechanisms)

Question 36

Example of Nurture

Answer 36

Behavioural psychologists explain attachment in terms of classical conditioning, where food (UCS) is associated with the mother (NS) and through many repeated pairing, the mother becomes (cs) in the child. Therefore, the child forms an attachment beaded on pleasure experience as a result of being fed

Question 37

Examples of the interactionist approach

Answer 37

The genetic disorder PKU (phenylketonuria) is caused by the inheritance of two recessive genes. People with PKU are unable to break down amino acid phenylalanine which builds up in the blood and brain causing mental retardation.

However, if a child with PKU is placed on a low protein diet for the first 12 years , they avoid potentially serious lifelong disorder

The disorder PKU (nature) is not expressed because of an altered environment ( low protein diet-nurture)

Question 38

Gestalt Psychology.

Answer 38

Gestalt Psychology adopts a holistic approach to perception: when we perceive something in the real world, we do so as a whole rather than a collection of bits and pieces.​

Question 39

what are the three different levels of explanation in reductionism

Answer 39

The higher levels take into account social and cultural factors.
The middle level which reduce behaviour to more psychological explanation
lower levels which reduces behaviour to individuals biological factors. e.g. Neurochemistry , genes and brain structure

Question 40

biological reductionism

Answer 40

Refers to the way that biological psychologists to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain it in terms of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain
structure

Question 41

environmental reductionism

Answer 41

also known as a stimulus-response reductionism. Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of S-R (Stimulus-response) associations and that complex behaviours are a series of S-R chains.​

Question 42

reductionism

Answer 42

Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts.​

Question 43

Gesalt psychology

Answer 43

Gestalt Psychology adopts a holistic approach to perception: when we perceive something in the real world, we do so as a whole rather than a collection of bits and pieces.​

Question 44

highest level of explanation

Answer 44

cultural and social explanations of behaviour (the influence of of social group on behaviour)

Question 45

middle level of explanation

Answer 45

psychological explanations (cognitive, behavioural/environmental)

Question 46

lowest level of explanation

Answer 46

biological explanation (neurochemical, genetics, brain structures)

Question 47

types of reductionism

Answer 47

biological and environmental

Question 48

biological reductionism

Answer 48

reducing behaviour to a psychical level and explain it in terms of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structure

Question 49

environmental reductionism

Answer 49

Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of S-R (Stimulus-response) associations and that complex behaviours are a series of S-R chains.​

Question 50

reductionism

Answer 50

Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts.​

Question 51

holism

Answer 51

behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experiences, and not as separate parts

Question 52

what approach does Gestalt psychology adopt

Answer 52

Gestalt Psychology adopts a holistic approach to perception: when we perceive something in the real world, we do so as a whole rather than as a collection of bits and pieces.​

Question 53

how do humanistic psychology say that humans react to stimulus

Answer 53

Humanistic psychology argues that humans react to stimuli as an organise whole, rather than a set of S-R links. As an approach, it uses qualitative methods to investigate all aspects of the individual, as well as the interactions between people.​

Question 54

idiographic

Answer 54

Psychologists who take an idiographic approach focus on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature.​
The term ‘idiographic’ comes from the Greek work ‘idios’ which means ‘own’ or ‘private’

Question 55

nomothetic

Answer 55

Psychologists who take a nomothetic approach are concerned with establishing general laws, based on the study of large groups of people​
The term ‘nomothetic’ comes from the Greek work ‘nomos’ which means ‘law’.

Question 56

idiographic research

Answer 56

Methods of investigation include:​

Case studies​, Unstructured interviews​,Thematic analysis​

Question 57

why are case studies a powerful research method

Answer 57

A single case study can highlight flaws within a theory and significantly undermine other research.​

Question 58

nomothetic research

Answer 58

Methods of investigation include:​

Experiments​, Correlational research​,Psychometric testing (personality)​

Question 59

Which approaches in psychology use a nomothetic approach?​

Answer 59

such as Pavlov & Skinner, conducted experiments with animals in order to establish laws of learning (classical and operant conditioning) that could be generalised to humans and non-human animals.​ Pavlov’s dogs assumed that this is how everyone behaves.

Question 60

ethical implications

Answer 60

Ethical implications considers the impact or consequences that psychological research has on the rights of other people in a wider context, not just the participants taking part in the research.​

Question 61

ethical implications of Milgram’s study

Answer 61

The participants were deceived, they were unable to provide fully informed consent. The experiment was distressing.​However, they were debriefed and took part in a follow-up interview. Participants said that they suffered no long –term effects.​

Question 62

ethical implications of Bowlby’s theory of attachment

Answer 62

Bowlby’s theory of attachment suggests that children form one special attachment bond, usually with their mother, which must take place within the critical period.​ Bowlby also suggested that this attachment bond affects their future relationships through an internal working model.​

Question 63

social sensitivity

Answer 63

Sieber and Stanley (1988) used the term socially sensitive to describe studies where there are potential social consequences for the participants or the group of people represented by the research. ​

Question 64

how is Milgram study be seen as social sensitive

Answer 64

It could be argued that Milgram’s research is socially sensitive as the results could be used to ensure that people obey orders, including those they don’t wish to follow.​

Question 65

how can Bowlby’s study be seen as social sensitive

Answer 65

Likewise, it could be argued that Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment is socially sensitive as it could be used to coerce mothers to stay at home and look after their children.​

Question 66

social sensitivity considered on level

Answer 66

the research question
the methodology used
the institutional context
interpretation an applications of findings

Question 67

the research question

Answer 67

The researcher must consider their research question carefully. Asking questions like ‘Are there racial differences in IQ?’ or ‘Is intelligence inherited?’ may be damaging to members of a particular group.​

Question 68

the methodology used

Answer 68

The researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participant’s and their right to confidentiality and anonymity. For example, if someone admits to committing a crime, should the researcher maintain confidentiality?​

Question 69

the institutional context

Answer 69

The researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research. If the research is funded by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings?​

Question 70

interpretation and applications of findings

Answer 70

the researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real-world. Could their data or results be used to inform policy? ​

Question 71

Emic approaches

Answer 71

Refers to studying a culture from within, looking at what behaviours have are specific to a culture

Question 72

Imposed Etic

Answer 72

Bias occurs when an observer attempts to generalise observations from one culture to another

Question 73

Cultural relativism

Answer 73

The view that behaviour can only be understood if the cultural context is taken into consideration.
Opposite to ethnocentrism which is where behaviour is judge from one’s own cultural perspective

Question 74

Etic approaches

Answer 74

Look at behaviours from the outside of a culture, trying to apply to universal laws

Question 75

How do Nature and nurture work together

Answer 75

The disorder PKU (nature) is not expressed because of altered environment (low protein diet-nurture)

Question 76

Etic constructs

Answer 76

Behaviours that’s are universal across all cultural groups

Question 77

Emic constructs

Answer 77

Behaviours that apply to only to certain cultural

Question 78

What are the four debates

Answer 78

Free will be determinism
Nature vs nurture
Reductionism vs holiday
Idiographic vs nomothetic

Question 79

Which approach assumes free will

Answer 79

Humanistic

Question 80

Three types of determinism

Answer 80

Psychic determinism , psychic
Environmental determinism, environmental
Biological determinism, biological

Question 81

What do determinist argue

Answer 81

That free will is an illusion

Question 82

what does the psychodynamic approach assume

Answer 82

psychic determinism, whereby behaviour is caused by the unconscious mind

Question 83

what does the behaviourist approach assume

Answer 83

environmental determinism , whereby all behaviour is caused by biological factors inside the body

Question 84

what does the biological approach assume

Answer 84

biological determinism, whereby all behaviour is caused by biological factors , inside the body

Question 85

why is free will unfalsifiable

Answer 85

it doesn’t allow for perditions about behaviour

Question 86

why is determinism unfalsifiable

Answer 86

we can only falsify claims about specific causes of behaviour
we cannot falsify the general idea that behaviour has a cause