Issues and Debates Flashcards
Gender Bias
One gender is treated less favourably than the other. Can result in scientifically misleading research or theories, the upholding of stereotypical assumptions or the validation of sex discrimination.
Types of Gender Bias- Rachel Hare-Mustin and Jeanne Marecek 1988
Alpha Bias- exaggerating the differences between men and women. Theories assume their are real and enduring differences between men and women.
Beta Bias- exaggerating the similarity between men and women. Minimise gender differences and assume all people are the same so it’s reasonable to apply all theories/ research to both men and women. Usually occurs when male focused research is applied to women.
Androcentrism
Psycholoy male-dominated so theories tend to represent a male world-view. Taking male behaviour as normal and regarding female behaviour as deviant instead of different is androcentric.
Beta Bias- Shelley Taylor et al 2000- gender stress response
Males and females respond differently to stressors- women more likely to ‘tend and befriend’. Women show behavioural and neurological signs of becoming more empathetic in response to stress, men usually socially withdraw and become aggressive. This is an example as beta bias as initial stress research was conducted on male animals, assuming females to react the same.
Alpha Bias- Freud and Psychosexual Development
Freud believed that ‘biology is destiny’ and the women’s roles were predetermined. His theory of ‘penis envy’ defines women as psychologically different as they are not men. His theories had consequences in how they reinforced stereotypes, like women’s moral inferiority and treating stereotype defiance as pathological. ANDROCENTRIC!
Alpha Bias- biomedical theories of abnormality
In women, mental illness is more likely to be explained by neurochemical/ hormonal processes instead of social or environmental explanations.
Beta Bias- Kohlberg and Moral Development
Based his stages of moral development on male moral reasoning with an all male sample. Inappropriate generalised his findings to women and claimed women reached lower levels of moral development.
Institutional Sexism
- Men predominate at senior researcher level.
- Research agenda follows male concerns, female concerns may be marginalised or ignored.
Feminist Psychology Improve Inequality
Take a feminist perspective- there are real biologically based sex differences but socially determined stereotypes make a far greater contribution to differences. Must revise our ‘facts’ about gender- redress the imbalances in theory and research by using evidence that women ARE inferior to provide support by developing strategies. (Eagley)
Eagley 1978- feminist psycholog
Women may be less effective leaders than men but this knowledge should be used to develop training programs for women.
Bias in Research Methods Gender Differences
Genders may be tested differently. Gender of the researcher can also impact the results of a study. Lab experiments disadvantage women as tell very little about experience of women in real life situation.
Rosenthal 1966- gender bias research methods
Male experimenters more pleasant and friendly to female ppts than male ones resulting in less performance from men on tasks.
Eagley and Johnson 1990- real settings gender
Studies in real settings for men and women more equal.
Reverse Alpha bias to show value of women
Develop theories which show the difference between men and women but emphasise the value of women. Challenges the stereotypes that the male must be better.
Cornwell et al 2013- reverse alpha bias
Women better at learning because they are more attentive, flexible and organised.
Negative consequences of beta bias
Equal treatment under the law has allowed women greater access to educational and occupational outcomes but has drawn attention from women’s needs.
Hare-Mustin and Maracek- beta bias negative
Equality draws attention from women’s needs- neutral actions benefit the group with the most power e.g. equal parental leave ignores biological demands of pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding, ignoring the special needs of women.
Gender assumptions need to be examined in research
Unchallenged in many theories e.g. Darwin portrayed women as picky, while men compete.
Vernimmen 2015- female competition
DNA evidence supports idea that it is a good adaptive strategy for females to mate with more than one man. This puts females in competition with other females.
Psychology Culture Stats
- 64% of psychological researchers from US
- 90% of studies have US participants
- Samples predominantly white middle class
Hare-Mustin and Marecek- culture bias types
- Emics approach/ alpha- theories that assume there are real and enduring differences between cultural groups.
- Etics approach/ beta- ignore or minimise cultural differences.
Emic constructs
Emic constructs are specific to particular cultures so vary from place to place. Liable to be ignored of misinterpreted as researchers from one culture may not be sensitive to local emics. Own cultural filters may prevent them from detectiting or appreciating their significance.
Takano and Osaka 1999- emics
Reviewed 15 studies that compared the US with Japan- 14/15 didn’t support differences in conformity of individualist/ collectivist cultures.
Etic constructs
Etic constructs assumed to be universal- can lead to imposed etics where a construct from one culture is applied to another inappropriately.
