Issues and Debates

Question 1

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: GENDER BIAS
Define gender bias

Answer 1

• gender bias is the tendency to treat one gender differently to another
• it is where psychological research or theories may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women

Question 2

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: GENDER BIAS
Define alpha bias

Answer 2

alpha bias: exaggerates or overestimates differences between the sexes, which tend to devalue females in relation to their male counterparts

Question 3

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: GENDER BIAS
Define beta bias

Answer 3

beta bias: minimises or underestimates the differences between men and women, often when females are not included in the research, and it is assumed that it will apply equally to males and females

Question 4

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: GENDER BIAS
Define androcentrism

Answer 4

alpha and beta bias are consequences of androcentrism
androcentrism: where ‘normal behaviour/experience is equated with men’s behaviour/experience, so women’s behaviour/experience is judged as abnormal or deviant. extreme cases: pathologised (medicalised)
- APA (American Psychological Association): list of 100 most influential psychologists and only 6 were women

Question 5

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: GENDER BIAS
Give an example of alpha bias in psychology

Answer 5

e.g. Freud (1905): theory of psychosexual stages
- significant conflict in phallic stage (boys = Oedipus complex, girls = Electra complex)
- where they develop strong romantic desires for their opposite-gender parent
- boys: castration anxiety forces them to identify with their father to resolve the conflict; therefore boys’ superego develops
- girls: not same anxiety => identification she forms with mother is weaker => she forms weaker superego => Freud believed girls were morally inferior to boys (plus he thought girls never fully resolved their conflict in the Electra complex)

Question 6

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: GENDER BIAS
Give an example of beta bias in psychology

Answer 6

e.g.) Fight or Flight response
- once suggested that fight or flight was a universal response to a threat, but early research was based solely on male animals (which were preferred over females due to females’ fluctuating hormone levels)
- however Taylor et al (2000): female biology has evolved to inhibit the fight or flight response to shift attention to caring for offspring (tend) and forming defensive networks with other females (befriend) – i.e. tend and befriend
- oxytocin (love hormone) is more prevalent in women and research has shown that women respond to stress by increasing oxytocin production, i.e. they show a preference for ‘tend and befriend’ over fight or flight

Question 7

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: GENDER BIAS
Give an example of androcentrism in psychology

Answer 7

e.g. PMS (pre-menstrual syndrome)
- has been rejected by feminists as a diagnostic category because it medicalises women’s emotions (e.g. anger)
- however male anger is often seen as a rational response (Brescoll and Uhlmann (2008))

Question 8

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: GENDER BIAS
What is the acronym for remembering the different types/consequences of gender bias and their examples?

Answer 8

At
Every
Pub and
Bar
Ugly
Fat
Animals
Poo

Alpha
Exaggerates
Psychosexual
Beta
Underestimates
Fight or flight
Androcentrism
PMS

Question 9

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: GENDER BIAS
Outline an argument FOR researching gender bias, regarding

biological versus social explanations

Answer 9

P: One limitation of the biological explanation is that gender differences are often presented as fixed and long-lasting.
E: For example, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) concluded from several studies that girls have superior verbal ability, whereas boys have better spatial ability. They suggested that these differences were ‘hardwired’ into the brain before birth, and these findings were gradually seen as facts.

FINISH THIS

Question 10

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
Define cultural bias

Answer 10

cultural bias: the tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of one culture

Question 11

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
Define universality

Answer 11

any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. gender bias and cultural bias threaten the universality of findings in psychology

Question 12

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
What research did the following people undertake which threatened universality, and, together, what does their research show?

Henrich et al (2010)
Arnett (2008)

Answer 12

Henrich et al (2010): reviewed 100s of studies in leading psychology journals, found that 68% came from USA, 96% from industrialised nations

Arnett (2008) found that 80% of research participants were psychology undergraduate students

These show that what we know about human behaviour has a strong cultural bias

Question 13

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
What acronym did Henrich et al (2010) create to describe the group of people most likely to be studied by psychologists? What is the consequence if this is the ‘norm’?

Answer 13

WEIRD: Westernised, Educated people from Industrialised, Rich Democracies

If the norm or standard for a particular behaviour is set by WEIRD people, then the behaviour of people from non-Westernised, less educated, agricultural and poorer cultures is inevitably seen as ‘abnormal’, ‘inferior’ or ‘unusual’

Question 14

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
Define ethnocentrism

Answer 14

ethnocentrism: the belief in the superiority in one’s own cultural group (a form of cultural bias)

Question 15

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
How does Ainsworth and Bell’s (1970) Strange Situation demonstrate ethnocentrism? How do Takahashi’s (1986) findings support this criticism?

Answer 15

• reflected the values of western culture
• the research claimed that the ideal attachment shows moderate stress when left alone by mother figure (secure attachment)
• but this leads to a misinterpretation of child-rearing practises in other countries which were seen to deviate from the USA ‘norm’
• Takahashi (1986) found that Japanese infants are much more likely to be classed as insecurely attached because they showed considerable distress on separation
• but this is likely due to the fact that Japanese babies are rarely separated from their mother

Question 16

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
Define cultural relativism

Answer 16

cultural relativism: the idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standards, can only be meaningful and understood within specific cultural and social contexts

Question 17

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
Define the two approaches to studying behaviour, as outlined by Berry (1969)

Answer 17

Emic approach: functions from inside a culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture

Etic approach: looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and attempts to describe these behaviours as universal => cultural bias

Question 18

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
Define ‘imposed etic’ and describe why one piece of research is an example of an ‘imposed etic’

Answer 18

imposed etic: a technique or theory developed in one culture and then used to study the behaviour of people in a different culture with different norms, values, experiences etc.

Ainsworth and Bell (1970): studied behaviour inside one culture (USA) and assumed that their ideal attachment type (and assessment method) could be applied universally

Question 19

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
How can psychologists avoid cultural bias in their research?

Answer 19

psychologists should be more aware of cultural relativism in their research - the ‘things’ they may discover may only make sense from the perspective of the culture in which they were discovered

Question 20

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
Evaluate researching cultural bias in psychology
(Classic Studies)

Answer 20

WEAKNESS
P: one weakness of researching into cultural bias is that many classic studies suffer from cultural bias
E: for example, Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is an example of an imposed etic (where USA attachment norms were assumed to apply to every culture); the samples for Milgram’s obedience research and Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment consisted of only white Americans.
E: this is a weakness because the usefulness of these studies is weakened, and the claims made from them cannot be universally applied because the theories were formed in one culture (often USA) and not properly adapted to others.
E: however, it could be argued that due to globalisation and the media, the distinction no longer applies. Takano and Osaka (1999) found that 14 out of 15 studies comparing the USA and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism.
L: therefore we may be able to apply some theories from classic studies, such as Milgram, Zimbardo and Ainsworth.

Question 20

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
Evaluate researching cultural bias in psychology
(emergence of ‘cultural psychology’)

Answer 20

P: one strength of research into cultural bias is the emergence of cultural psychology.
E: for example, Cohen (2017) describes cultural psychology as the study of how people shape and are shaped by their cultural experience. cultural psychologists strive to avoid ethnocentric assumptions by taking an emic approach
E: this is a strength because researchers demonstrate reflexivity since they recognise their own bias and acknowledge that in their research samples (making them more reflective of the target population) and in the application of their findings.
L: therefore researchers are less likely to take an etic approach and this will improve psychological research.

Question 21

GENDER AND CULTURE IN PSYCHOLOGY: CULTURAL BIAS
Evaluate researching cultural bias in psychology
(implications)

Answer 21

P: one weakness of research into cultural bias is that it has led to significant implications for some ethnic groups.
E: for example, the use of IQ tests as a screening measure in WW1 was used to inform racist discourse about the genetic inferiority of certain cultural and ethnic groups.
E: This is a weakness because it can lead to damaging conclusions from culturally biased research, for example the definitions of abnormality and Ainsworth’s Strange Situation, creating ‘good’ and ‘bad’ mothers. in extreme cases, culturally biased research can lead to the creation or reinforcement of stereotypes, produce racist results and lead to discrimination.
L: therefore we must be extremely cautious about how we generalise findings in psychological research.

Question 22

FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Define free will

Answer 22

free will: assumes humans are free to choose their own behaviour and that influences (biological or environmental) can be rejected at will. important to the humanistic approach

Question 23

FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Contrast soft determinism and hard determinism

Answer 23

hard determinism: (aka fatalism) all behaviours have causes and these are internal/external events outside of our control – free will is an illusion. important to the behaviourist approach

soft determinism: behaviours are predictable because they have internal/external causes, but are influenced by limited personal choices (restricted free will). important to the cognitive approach

Question 24

FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Outline what is meant by biological determinism

Answer 24

biological determinism:
- behaviours are caused by biological influences we cannot control (e.g. genes, hormones etc)
- emphasised by the biological approach
- lots of behavioural characteristics such as mental disorders are thought to have a genetic basis and research has supported the role of testosterone (hormonal activity) in aggressive behaviour
- some modern biopsychologists also recognise the mediating influence of the environment on our biological structures, but this just means we are ‘doubly-determined’ in ways we cannot control

Question 25

FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Outline what is meant by environmental determinism

Answer 25

• emphasised by the social learning theory (skinner: ‘free will is an illusion’)
• behaviours is a result of conditioning and our experience of ‘choice’ is merely the sum total of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us throughout our lives
• we may think we’re acting independently but our behaviour is shaped by environmental events

Question 26

FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Outline what is meant by psychic determinism

Answer 26

• emphasised by the psychodynamic approach
• freud agreed with skinner that free will is an illusion, but he emphasised the influence of biological drives and instincts
• human behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood

Question 27

FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Outline what is meant by the scientific principle of causal explanations

Answer 27

• everything has a cause which can be explained by a general law (hard determinism)
• knowledge of causes and formulation of laws => scientists can predict and control events in future
• lab experiment is the ideal of science: enables researchers to demonstrate causal relationships
• determinism emphasised scientific causal relationships

Question 28

FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Explore the arguments for and against free will and determinism
(for free will - positive implications)

Answer 28

FOR FREE WILL
P: one argument for free will is that a belief in free will has positive implications
E: for example, Roberts et al (2000) found that adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism are at a significantly greater risk of developing depression.
E: this supports free will because it has real world application, such as with CBT. this helps clients to consciously change their behaviour
E: however, this could have negative implications if the client starts to blame themselves for causing their depression in the first place (since it’s all free will, everything is our own choice)
L: therefore, even if we do not have free will, the fact that we believe we do may have a positive impact on our mind and behaviour.

Question 29

FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Explore the arguments for and against free will and determinism
(against free will - biological determinism evidence)

Answer 29

AGAINST FREE WILL
P: one argument against free will is the existence of empirical evidence for biological determinism.
E: for example, Libet et al (1983) instructed ptps to choose a random moment to flick their wrist while they measured their brain activity. ptps had to say when they made the decision to move, and he found there was generally a 1/2 lag from brain activity to verbalising the ‘choice’
E: This means even our most basic actions were biologically determined since the activity in our brain came before the conscious decision to move
E: however, this may not mean that there’s no free will, just that our choice could have been unconscious first and then became conscious.
L: therefore this is a complex debate with no clear answer

Question 30

FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Explore the arguments for and against free will and determinism
(for determinism - psychology as a science)

Answer 30

FOR DETERMINISM
P: one argument for determinism is that it has helped to establish psychology as a science.
E: for example, determinism allows us to make cause and effect conclusions, since one thing determines another, and this allows for psychologists to predict and control potential illnesses, and allows us to intervene successfully.
E: this means we are able to create treatments and interventions to reduce undesirable behaviours (e.g. crime, poor mental health). for instance we can predict that low levels of serotonin could cause depression and so we can intervene with giving the patient SSRIs to reduce the symptoms of it.
L: therefore a deterministic stance has added value to psychology emerging as a science

Question 31

FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Explore the arguments for and against free will and determinism
(against determinism - legal system)

Answer 31

AGAINST DETERMINISM
P: one argument against free will is that a hard determinist stance is inconsistent with the legal system.
E: for example, the current legal system holds an individual responsible/makes an assumption that the individual used their free will to commit crimes, when there is a large body of evidence suggesting that in some capacity, crime is pre-determined.
E: this means one option is to ignore the body of evidence of crime being predetermined, accepting the consequence of individuals who are potentially being punished for a crime (sometimes even with death penalty) that they had no choice in committing.
E: however the other option would be to use the evidence to reform the legal system, which would create controversial moral dilemmas and negative implications for the economy, since reforming the whole legal system would be costly and extremely time-consuming.
L: therefore, it is a morally sensitive issue with no clear answer.

Question 32

NATURE-NUTRURE DEBATE
Outline what is meant by the nature-nurture debate

Answer 32

nature: inherited influence, all characteristics are innate
nurture: influence of experience and the environment

interactionist approach: recently, the debate has considered the relative contribution of both

Question 33

NATURE-NUTRURE DEBATE
Name 3 ways we measure the influence of nature and nurture. What is concordance? What does 1% concordance mean? What does 100% concordance mean?

Answer 33

• adoption studies
• twin studies
• magic studies (identical twins adopted by different parents)

concordance: estimate of the extent to which a trait is inherited - heritability
1% (0.1) condordance = genes contribute almost nothing to individual differences
100% (1.0) concordance = genes are the only reason for individual differences

Question 34

NATURE-NUTRURE DEBATE
Outline the diathesis-stress model

Answer 34

the theory that behaviour is caused by a biological or environmental vulnerability (diathesis) which lays dormant until it is triggered by a biological or environmental stressor, then it will be expressed

e.g.) OCD: can inherit vulnerability for OCD but may not develop the disorder - unless triggered by a psychological stressor (traumatic experience)

Question 35

NATURE-NUTRURE DEBATE
Outline what is meant by epigenetics

Answer 35

epigenetics: a change in the way our genes are expressed for varying amounts of time without changing the genes themselves
- happens throughout life and is caused by an interaction with the environment
- these env interactions (e.g. smoking, diet, trauma) leave a ‘mark’ on our genes which switches them on or off (can be long lasting)
- can be passed on through generations
–> 3rd element to nature-nurture debate: life experiences of previous generations

Question 36

NATURE-NUTRURE DEBATE
Outline an extended argument FOR research the nature-nurture debate, regarding adoption studies.

Answer 36

P: One argument FOR the nature-nurture debate is the use of adoption studies in research
E: For example, a meta-analysis of adoption studies by Rhee and Waldman (2002) found that genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression.
E: This is a strength because adoption studies separate the competing influences of nature and nurture. If adopted children are found to be more similar to their adoptive parents, this emphasises the role of nurture. Whereas, if adopted children are found to be more similar to their biological parents (who have had no influence on their environment) then genetic factors (nature) are presumed to dominate.
E: However, research suggests that this approach may be misguided. It is argued that nature and nurture are not two entities that can simply be pulled apart. According to Robert Plomin (1994), people create their own ‘nurture’ by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their ‘nature’. Thus, a naturally aggressive child is likely to feel more comfortable with children who show similar behaviours and will ‘choose’ their environment accordingly. Plomin refers to this as ‘niche-picking’.
L: Therefore, whilst adoption studies are useful for attempting to separate the influence of nature and nurture, the evidence from this should be taken with caution.

Question 37

NATURE-NUTRURE DEBATE
Outline an argument FOR research into the nature-nurture debate, regarding epigenetics

Answer 37

P: One argument FOR the nature-nurture debate is that there is support for epigenetics.
E: For example, evidence of how environment effects van span generations (presumably through epigenetics) comes from events in WW2. In 1944, Nazis blocked the distribution of goods to the Dutch people and 22,000 people died of starvation in what was called the ‘Dutch Hunger Winter’. Susser and Lin (1992) report that women who became pregnant during the famine went on to have low birth weight babies. These babies were twice as likely to develop schizophrenia when they grew up compared to the norm.
E: This is a strength because it supports the view that life experiences of previous generations can leave epigenetic ‘markers’ that influence the health of their offspring.
L: As a result, the credibility of the nature-nurture debate – specifically the role of epigenetics – is increased.

Question 38

NATURE-NUTRURE DEBATE
Outline an argument FOR research into the nature-nurture debate, regarding real-world application

Answer 38

P: One argument for the nature-nurture debate is that it has real-world application.
E: For example, research suggests that OCD is a highly heritable mental disorder. Nestadt et al (2010) stated the heritability of OCD to be 0.76. Such understanding can inform genetic counselling because it is important to understand that high heritability does not mean inevitability.
E: This is a strength because it means that people with a high genetic risk of OCD (or other mental disorders) because of their family background can receive advice about the likelihood of developing the disorder and how they might prevent this (e.g. learn to manage their stress).
L: As a result, the explanatory power of the nature-nurture debate is increased as it provides us with practical solutions to behaviour.

Question 39

NATURE-NUTRURE DEBATE
Outline an argument AGAINST research into the nature-nurture debate, regarding implications of the debate.

Answer 39

P: One argument AGAINST research into the nature-nurture debate is that there are dangerous implications.
E: For example, nativists suggest that ‘anatomy is destiny’ in that our genetic makeup determines our characteristics and behaviour, with little environmental input.
E: This is a weakness because this extreme deterministic stance has led to controversy, such as linking ethnicity, genetics and intelligence and the application of eugenic policies.
E: However, epiricists suggest that any behaviour can be changed by altering environemtnal conditions. Behaviour shaping and mediaction has practical applications in therapy. Desirable behaviours can be selectively reinforced and undesirable behaviours are punished and ignored. In extrememe conditions this could lead to complete social control by the state for the ‘good’ of everyone.
L: As a result, we might be cautious when making conclusions about behaviour is adopting a hard determinist nature or nurture stance as this has potentially dangerous implications.

(Eugenics is a set of beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population. Historically, eugenicists have altered various human gene frequencies by inhibiting the fertility of people and groups they considered inferior, or promoting that of those considered superior)

Question 40

HOLISM VS REDUCTIONISM DEBATE
Define holism and reductionism, with an example of an approach that takes each stance.

Answer 40

Holism:
- looks at the ‘whole self’ and sees any attempt to subdivide behaviour or experience into smaller units as inappropriate
- ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’
e.g.) humanistic approach: focuses on the individual experience, which is not something that can be reduced to, for example, biological units.

Reductionism:
- seeks to analyse behaviour by breaking it down into constituent parts
- based on scientific principle of parsimony - that all phenomena should be explained using the simplest (lowest level) principles
e.g.) biological approach: looks at biological basis for mental disorders, e.g. hormones/neurotransmitters/genes

Question 41

HOLISM VS REDUCTIONISM DEBATE
Explain what it meant by ‘levels of explanation in psychology’ and explore each level, using the example of OCD.

Answer 41

levels of explanation: different ways of explaining behaviour, some more reductionist than others

• socio-cultural level, e.g. OCD interrupts social relationships
• psychological level, e.g. the person’s experience of anxiety
• physical level - movements, e.g. washing one’s hands
• environmental/behavioural level - learning experiences
• physiological level, e.g. abnormal functioning in the frontal lobes
• neurochemical level, e.g. underproduction of serotonin

Question 42

HOLISM VS REDUCTIONISM DEBATE
Outline what is meant by biological reductionism.

Answer 42

biological reductionism:
- includes the neurochemical and physiological levels, as well as evolutionary and genetic influences
- based on the premise that we are biological organisms, thus all behaviour is at some level biological
- biologically reductionist arguments often work backwards: drugs that increase serotonin have been found to be effective in treating OCD, therefore working backwards, low serotonin may be a cause of OCD - we have reduced OCD to the level of neurotransmitter activity

Question 43

HOLISM VS REDUCTIONISM DEBATE
Outline what is meant by environmental reductionism.

Answer 43

environmental reductionism:
- behaviourist approach built on his, proposing all behaviour is learned and acquired through interactions with the environment
- behaviourists explain behaviour in terms if conditioning which is focused on stimulus-response links, reducing behaviour to these basic elements
- e.g.) learning theory of attachment reduces the idea of love (between baby and food-giver) to a learned association between the food-giver (neutral stimulus) and food (unconditioned stimulus) resulting in pleasure (conditioned response)

Question 44

HOLISM VS REDUCTIONISM DEBATE
Outline an extended argument FOR REDUCTIONISM, regarding scientific testing.

Answer 44

P: One argument FOR REDUCTIONISM is that it is both possible and beneficial to break behaviour down into its constituent parts and scientifically test them.
E: For example, we have reduced the complex behaviours of OCD to being caused by factors including abnormal functioning in the frontal lobes.
E: This is a strength because a reductionist stance allows us to more easily identify causes for behaviours which could lead to the developments of treatments.
E: Futhermore, a reductionist approach highlights the importance of biological exaplantions in human behaviour, like another cause of OCD being the underproduction of serotonin. This again allows us to more easily develop treatments to target specific biological issues using drugs such as SSRIs.
L: Therefore, the credibility of the reductionist stance is increased.

Question 45

HOLISM VS REDUCTIONISM DEBATE
Outline an extended argument AGAINST REDUCTIONISM, regarding oversimplifying behaviour.

Answer 45

P: One argument AGAINST REDUCTIONISM is that it may oversimplify behaviours.
E: For example, we have broken down the complex behaviours of OCD and concluded that it is largely due to an underproduction of serotonin, neglecting the influence of the environment, for example a stressor triggering OCD.
E: Thi is a weakness because reductionism leads to such a focus on one or a few aspects of a behaviour, e.g. mental health disorders like OCD, that it neglects other important factors, such as the influence of the environment.
E: Furthermore, many different theories have been created with the intention of establishing a causal relationship, but there has been little attempt to combine them. This is an issue because it doesn’t reflect the combination of influences in the real world.
L: Therefore a holistic approach could be more appropriate to reflect influences on behaviour in the real world.

Question 46

HOLISM VS REDUCTIONISM DEBATE
Outline an extended argument FOR HOLISM, regarding a complete understanding.

Answer 46

P: One argument FOR HOLISM is that it reminds us that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
E: For example, we hypothesise that OCD can be caused by both biological and environmental factors through the diathesis-stress model, which suggests that individuals may inherit a genetic vulnerability for OCD, but it may only be expressed when triggered by a stressor (in interaction with the environment) such as a traumatic experience.
E: This is a strength because a holistic stance explains that there is a combination of factors interacting over our lifespan to cause our behaviour.
E: Furthermore, a holistic stance offers a more complete understanding of behaviour because it considers the interaction of all factors (biological, psychological, environmental etc) in causing our behaviour. This is beneficial because it is more reflective of how humans behave outside of lab conditions, where usually one factor is focused on (e.g. biological factors).
L: Therefore, a holistic approach to understanding behaviour has increased credibility.

Question 47

HOLISM VS REDUCTIONISM DEBATE
Outline an extended argument AGAINST HOLISM, regarding rigorous testing.

Answer 47

P: One argument AGAINST HOLISM is that behaviours cannot be rigorously tested.
E: For example, it isn’t possible to study every factor that affects behaviour and so we cannot establish a causal relationship.
E: This is a weakness because we cannot therefore gather research to support theories, which gives a lack of falsification to our research.
E: Furthermore, this holistic approach would also make it difficult to establish how much each individual factor (i.e. just our environment or just our biology) contributes to a behaviour. This means we are left with no more clarity, and gives an unsatisfactory explanation for behaviour.
L: Therefore, a reductionist approach would be more appropriate for establishing causal relationships of behaviour.

Question 48

IDIOGRAPHIC AND NOMOTHETIC APPROACHES
Briefly differentiate idiographic and nomothetic approaches, with an example of an approach for each.

Answer 48

idiographic approach:
- ‘idios’ (greek) means ‘private’ or ‘personal’
- focuses on the individual, subjective experience as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour.
- e.g.) humanistic approach focuses on the subjective human experiences and makes no attempt at creating general laws to explain behaviour

nomothetic approach:
- ‘nomos’ (greek) means ‘law’
- aims to study behaviour through the development of general laws and principles
- e.g.) behaviourist approach focuses on making general laws of behaviour, e.g. CC + OC, as well as using generalising animal behaviour to apply to humans

Question 49

IDIOGRAPHIC AND NOMOTHETIC APPROACHES
Differentiate the research methods in idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation, using examples of approaches.

Answer 49

idiographic: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
- case studies
- unstructured interviews
- data analysed via identified themes
- objectivity isn’t often possible: an individual’s experience of their unique context is what’s important
- e.g.) humanistic approach: Rogers explained the process of self-development including the role of unconditional positive regard, which was derived from in-depth conversations with clients in therapy.

nomothetic: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- scientific method: hypotheses, samples of people assessed in some way
- structured questionnaire/psychological tests
- produces numerical data which is analysed for statistical significance
- standardised and objective methods of assessment => laws are created => ensures true replication occurs across samples of behaviour and removes the contaminating influence of bias
- e.g.) biological approach: Sperry’s split-brain research involved a small sample and repeated testing and was, in part, the basis for understanding hemispheric lateralisation

Question 50

IDIOGRAPHIC AND NOMOTHETIC APPROACHES
Outline an argument FOR the IDIOGRAPHIC approach, regarding a whole and global account.

Answer 50

P: One argument FOR taking an IDIOGRAPHIC approach is that it provides a whole, global account of an individual.
E: For example, a single case may generate hypotheses for further study such as in brain-damaged individuals, like HM. Findings may reveal important insights about ‘normal’ functioning, contributing to our overall understanding of brain functioning.
E: This is a strength because it contributes to our overall understanding of issues and complements the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or indeed by challenging such laws.
E: However, the data gathered from case studies aren’t generalisable, because they are very unrepresentative, usually unscientific and represent a very small sample size. Should we use one individual’s results (HM’s abnormal brain functioning) to disprove a whole theory which applies to the whole population (like the multistore model of memory)?
L: As a result, we can see that the use of radiographic approaches can be beneficial in understanding unique case studies that cannot be understood on a much bigger scale such as nomothetic approaches.

Question 51

IDIOGRAPHIC AND NOMOTHETIC APPROACHES
Outline an argument AGAINST the IDIOGRAPHIC approach, regarding the narrow and constricted view.

Answer 51

P: One argument AGAINST an IDIOGRAPHIC approach is that it provides a narrow and restricted view.
E: For example, Freud’s Oedipus complex was largely based on a single case study (Little Hans).
E: This is a weakness because meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples, as there is no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour.
E: Furthermore, idiographic methods such as case studies tend to be the least scientific in that the conclusions rely on the subjective interpretation of the researcher and are therefore open to bias.
L: As a result, the scientific claim of the idiographic approach is weakened and it is sent to be unreliable and low in validity because of the nature of examining unique cases.

Question 52

IDIOGRAPHIC AND NOMOTHETIC APPROACHES
Outline an argument FOR the NOMOTHETIC approach, regarding a scientific approach.

Answer 52

P: One argument FOR a NOMOTHETIC approach is that it is more scientific than an idiographic approach.
E: For example, nomothetic approaches test under standardised conditions, using data sets that provide group averages, statistical analysis and use prediction and control.
E: This is a strength because such processes have enabled psychologists to establish norms of ‘typical’ behaviour (such as the average IQ of 100).
E: Furthermore, the nomothetic approach has real-world application because we can identify individuals who deviate from social norms (e.g. abnormally low IQ) and intervene to give them any help or treatment they need as soon as possible.
L: Therefore, this arguably gives the discipline of psychology greater scientific credibility.

Question 53

IDIOGRAPHIC AND NOMOTHETIC APPROACHES
Outline an argument AGAINST the NOMOTHETIC approach, regarding losing the whole person.

Answer 53

P: One argument AGAINST a NOMOTHETIC approach is that it has been accused of ‘losing the whole person’.
E: For example, knowing that there is a 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia tells us little about what life is like for someone suffering from the disorder.
E: This is a weakness because, in its search for generalities, the nomothetic approach may sometimes overlook the richness of human experience. For example in lab studies involving memory tests, participants are treated as a series of scores rather than individual people with subjective experience of the situation.
E: However, the solution could be to combine both idiographic and nomothetic approaches to get a more rounded view of research, valuing individual experiences.
L: Therefore, it can be argued that nomothetic approaches lack external validity and do not accurately reflect real life in individuals.

Question 54

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH STUDIES AND THEORY
Differentiate ethical guidelines and ethical implications, with examples.

Answer 54

ethical guidelines: guidelines established to protect participants and guide researchers; includes informed consent, right to withdraw, protection from harm, confidentiality and deception.

ethical implications: the consequences of any research (studies or theory) in terms of the effects on individual participants, groups of the target population or people in wider society. e.g. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation had ethical implications for Japanese mothers in that they were labelled as overbearing.

Question 55

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH STUDIES AND THEORY
Define social sensitivity, as given by Sieber and Stanley (1988) and give an example of socially sensitive research.

Answer 55

social sensitivity: research (study or theory) that has potentially negative consequences for groups represented in the research

e.g.) Ainsworth’s Strange Situation had negative consequences for Japanese mothers since they were labelled as overbearing
e.g.) Milgram’s obedience study had negative consequences for everyone since he demonstrated that everyone has the capacity to behave cruelly towards another person under the orders of an authority figure - as opposed to thinking the Germans were ‘different’ and only they were capable of doing such things

Question 56

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH STUDIES AND THEORY
Outline why researchers must plan their research question carefully in order to reduce the negative consequences of socially sensitive research, with an example where this hasn’t been done.

Answer 56

research question:
- the way the question is phrased and investigated may influence how they’re interpreted
- e.g.) Kitzinger and Coyle (1995) note how research into relationships has been guilty of ‘heterosexual bias’ within which homosexual relationships were compared and judged against heterosexual norms

Question 57

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH STUDIES AND THEORY
Outline why researchers must deal with their participants carefully in order to reduce the negative consequences of socially sensitive research, with an example where this should be done.

Answer 57

dealing with participants:
- informed consent
- confidentiality
- protection from psychological harm
- e.g.) ptps in study on domestic abuse may worry that an ex-partner may find out about it; likely to be stressful for ptps - confidentiality and other guidelines are important to consider

Question 58

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH STUDIES AND THEORY
Outline why researchers must carefully plan the way their findings are used in order to reduce the negative consequences of socially sensitive research, with an example where this hasn’t been done.

Answer 58

the way the findings are used:
- researchers should consider in advance how findings are to be used, which may impact on what data they collect
- important because findings may be seen as giving scientific credence to existing prejudices, e.g. studies examining the ethnic basis of intelligence (IQ)
- sensitive info will be publicised and shared by the media - e.g.) Owen’s research on people in a minimally conscious state (coma) received enormous attention from the media as it appeared he had made contact with patients who were thought to be ‘unreachable’

Question 59

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH STUDIES AND THEORY
Outline an argument FOR conducting socially sensitive research, regarding real-world application.

Answer 59

P: One argument FOR conducting socially sensitive research is that it has real-world application because we rely on research when making decisions about socially sensitive issues
E: For example, the government looks to research when developing important social policies with decisions related to socially sensitive issues such as childcare, mental health provision and crime.
E: This is a strength because the government is therefore more informed to make important decisions and are able to handle these sensitive topics with care.
E: However, the reliance on research has also done harm due to poorly concluded research such as the correlation between autism and the MMR vaccine. the researcher behind this falsely concluded that the vaccine “caused” autism, which led to parents being too scared to get their children vaccine, and eventually led to an outbreak of mumps.
L: Therefore there is real-world application to socially sensitive research, but it is not always beneficial and conclusions should be handled with care.

Question 60

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH STUDIES AND THEORY
Outline an argument FOR conducting socially sensitive research, regarding benefits for groups.

Answer 60

P: One argument FOR conducting socially sensitive research is that it provides benefits for groups.
E: For example, homosexuality used to be classed in the DSM-1 as a sociopathic personality disorder, but this was dropped in 1973 due to a study by Kinsey, which said that homosexuality was still “a typical expression of human sexual behaviour”.
E: This is a strength because research showed that this was normal behaviour and so the label of ‘sociopathic personality disorder was dropped, giving beneficial results for those in the LGBTQ+ community.
E: However, research isn’t always beneficial, because research has shown that there is a ‘crime gene’. This is an issue because it has led to an increase in people blaming criminal behaviour on genes rather than taking responsibility for their own choices.
L: Therefore we should conduct social sensitive research but we should do it with caution.

Question 61

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH STUDIES AND THEORY
Outline one argument AGAINST conducting socially sensitive research, regarding poor research design.

Answer 61

P: One argument AGAINST conducting socially sensitive research is that we could end up with erroneous (false) findings.
E: For example, Burt’s (1955) creation of the 11+ exam is based on fake data with ‘imaginary’ research assistants, yet even after the fraud was exposed, it’s still used as a selection tool.
E: This is a weakness because we are unsure if the results from 11+ exams are valid because Burt’s research was exposed to fraud.
E: Additionally, this invalid result could restrict certain students from accessing higher education, which could have negative implications for some young people.
L: Therefore, research on socially sensitive topics need to be planned with the greatest care to ensure the findings are valid because of the enduring effects on particular groups of people.