Approaches

Question 1

ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Fill in the blanks:

In 1879, Wilhelm [ ] opened the first ever [ ] dedicated to [ ] [ ] in a little town called Leipzig in [ ] . His work was significant because it marked the beginning of [ ] [ ] , separating it from its broader roots of [ ] [ ] . His aim was to try and analyse the nature of human [ ] , and thus represented the first systematic attempt to study the [ ] under [ ] conditions. His pioneering method became known as [ ] .

Answer 1

In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt opened the first-ever lab dedicated to psychological enquiry in a little town called Leipzig in Germany. His work was significant because it marked the beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from its broader roots of experimental philosophy. His aim was to try and analyse the nature of human consciousness and thus represented the first systematic attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions. His pioneering method became known as introspection.

Question 2

ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY
What is introspection and how did Wundt do it?

Answer 2

Introspection is the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations

• he and his co-workers recorded their experiences of different objects (ticking metronome) or sounds and divided them into thoughts, images and sensations
• structuralism: isolating the structure of conscious awareness by always being presented in the same order and the same instructions given to all ptps

Question 3

ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Evaluate (one strength, one weakness) Wundt’s contribution to psychology

Answer 3

STRENGTH: scientific
- systematic methods, well-controlled, i.e. scientific
- all introspections done in the controlled lab environment
- => extraneous variables controlled for
- procedures standardised (everyone tested in the same way)
FURTHERMORE: father of psychology, first scientific psychological journal
THEREFORE: Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches, e.g. behaviourist and cognitive

LIMITATION: subjective data
- considered unscientific today
- self-report = subjective data, some ptps may have hidden some of their thoughts
- difficult to establish meaningful ‘laws of behaviour’ from subjective data: general laws are useful to predict future behaviours which is an aim of science
~~> Wundt’s early efforts to study the mind were flawed and wouldn’t meet the criteria of scientific enquiry

Question 4

ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Outline the emergence of psychology as a science, referencing 1900s, 1950s and 1980s

Answer 4

1900s Behaviourists
- value of introspection was questioned by many (because of the subjective data and difficulty to establish general laws) including Watson
- Watson and Skinner: truly scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed objectively and measured
- behaviourists dominated for next 50yrs

1950s Cognitive Approach
- digital revolution => metaphor for studying the mind
- said the mind was “like a computer” (like multi-store model)
- tested predictions about memory and attention using experiments
- ensured study of mind was legitimate and highly scientific

1980s Biological Approach
- taken advantage of advances in technology to investigate psychological processes (live) as they happen, e.g. brain scans
- genetic testing => better understanding of relationship between genes and behaviour

Question 5

ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Evaluate (one strength, one limitation) the emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 5

STRENGTH: modern psychology is scientific
- same aims as natural sciences: to describe, understand, predict and control behaviour
- learning, cognitive and biological approaches use scientific methods (lab studies)
~~> throughout 20th century and beyond, psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline
HOWEVER: lacking in paradigm (a set of principles, methods and assumptions that everyone agrees on) due to too much internal disagreement
THEREFORE: scientific status threatened

LIMITATION: subjective data
- not all approaches use objective methods
- humanistic rejects the scientific approach, preferring to focus on individual and subjective experiences
- psychodynamic makes use of case studies which are unrepresentative
- humans as the subject of study makes our research vulnerable to demand characteristics
THEREFORE: scientific approach to the study of human behaviour isn’t always possible or desirable

Question 6

LEARNING APPROACHES: THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
Outline the 4 assumptions of the behaviourist approach

Answer 6

• studying observable behaviour
• aim for more control and objectivity (therefore lab studies are ideal)
• basic processes of learning are the same in all species (therefore we can use animals as subjects in experiments)
• all behaviour is learned, as babies we are ‘blank slates’

Question 7

LEARNING APPROACHES: THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
Outline the 2 key theories of the behaviourist approach, determined by Pavlov and Skinner

Answer 7

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
- learning through association
before:
- UCS (food) -> UCR (salivation) (generally a reflex)
- NS (bell) -> no response
during:
- UCS (food) + NS (bell) -> UCR (salivation)
- this is repeated until…
after:
- (NS (bell) has now become the:) CS -> (UCR (salivation) has now become the:) CR

OPERANT CONDITIONING
- learning is an active process
- humans and animals behave according to their environment in terms of the consequences of their behaviours:
- positive reinforcement: desirable behaviour is rewarded
- punishment: an undesirable behaviour is met with an unpleasant consequence
- negative reinforcement: finding a way to avoid the unpleasant consequence
- +ve and -ve reinforcement both increase the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated and punishment decreases the likelihood that behaviours will be repeated

Question 8

LEARNING APPROACHES: THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
Outline one strength of the behaviourist approach, regarding its scientific nature.

Answer 8

P: One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is scientific.
E: For example, behaviourism brought about language and methods of natural sciences into Psychology by studying observable behaviour in highly controlled lab settings by conducting experiments on animals (i.e. Pavlov’s dogs and Skinner’s rats).
E: This is a strength because it emphasises the importance of scientific processes such as objectivity and replication which are key features when defining what a science really is. This therefore strengthens Psychology’s claim to being a science.
E: However, animal studies, though they are scientific, have limited generalisability to humans because we have more complex functioning and more complex brains which govern our behaviour than rats or dogs do. Therefore despite the behaviourist approach being scientific, psychologists must be cautious when making claims about human behaviour that have an evidence base in animal studies.
L: As a result, the credibility of the behaviourist approach is increased but only to a certain extent due to a flaw in the generalisability of their research, despite it being scientific.

Question 9

LEARNING APPROACHES: THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
Outline one limitation of the behaviourist approach, regarding environmental determinism.

Answer 9

P: One limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it is environmentally deterministic.
E: For example, this approach views all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned. Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum of our reinforcement history.
E: This is a weakness because it ignores any possible influence of free will on our behaviour. Skinner suggested that any sense of free will is an illusion; when something happens we impose a sense of having made the decision but, according to Skinner, our past conditioning history actually determined the outcome. This is a pessimistic view of human behaviour and implies that we have no active role in our behaviour, an idea that lacks intuitive plausibility.
E: However, one strength of environmental determinism is that we can establish a causal relationship because we assume that, for example, past experiences cause our current behaviour. This allows for a better understanding of human behaviour and can have real-world application in the treatment of debilitating disorders like phobias (which we treat with classical conditioning).
L: As a result, the credibility of the behaviourist approach is increased but only to an extent due to the restricted view of human behaviour.

Question 10

LEARNING APPROACHES: THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
Outline one strength of the behaviourist approach, regarding real-world application.

Answer 10

P: One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has real-world application.
E: For example, operant conditioning has been used to develop token economy systems in prisons and psychiatric wards (where prisoners/patients are rewarded with tokens they can exchange for goods when they display a desirable behaviour) and classical conditioning has been used in the treatment of phobias.
E: This is a strength because it suggests that the behaviourists are accurate in their assumptions and that we can use these understandings to aid and better the existence of humans to allow for better lifestyles and treatments of potentially debilitating disorders.
E: Furthermore, the application of behaviourist concepts in the treatment of phobias has positive implications for the economy. This is because we can provide treatment for the disorder that previously made them unable to work, which means that when they return to work with an improved quality of life, they are able to contribute once again to the economy, further emphasising the benefits of the behaviourist approach.
L: As a result, the credibility of the behaviourist approach is increased due to real-world application.

Question 11

LEARNING APPROACHES: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Outline the 2 assumptions of Social Learning Theory (SLT) as determined by Bandura

Answer 11

• we learn through observation and imitation of others
• learning occurs directly, i.e. CC and OC, but also indirectly

Question 12

LEARNING APPROACHES: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Outline the 3 key theories of SLT, as determined by Bandura

Answer 12

VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT:
- imitation occurs if the behaviour of another individual is seen to be rewarded rather than punished

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES:
1) attention: noticing behaviours
2) retention: remembering behaviours
3) motor reproduction: ability of observer to perform the behaviour
4) motivation: the will to perform the behaviour, often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished

IDENTIFICATION:
- people (esp children) are more likely to imitate people that they identify with (role models)
- role model: same gender, attractive, higher status
- process of imitating a role OR the role model demonstrating a behaviour is called modelling
- role models can be live (in person) or symbolic (via tv etc.)

Question 13

LEARNING APPROACHES: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Describe Bandura’s (1961) original/first bobo doll study

Answer 13

children observed adult hit a bobo doll with a hammer and shout abuse at it
children later behaved more aggressively towards the bobo doll than those who had observed a non-aggressive adult

Question 14

LEARNING APPROACHES: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Describe Bandura and Walters’ (1963) second bobo doll study

Answer 14

• showed videos to children of adults behaving aggressively towards bobo doll
• group 1 saw adults praised for their behaviour (told “well done”)
• group 2 saw adult punished for aggression (told off)
• control group: saw aggression with no consequence
• when given own bobo doll to play with, group 1 showed most aggression, then control group, then group 2

Question 15

LEARNING APPROACHES: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Evaluate SLT

Answer 15

STRENGTH: recognises cognitive factors
- CC and OC alone don’t offer an adequate explanation of learning
- humans and animals store info about behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions
- Bandura: “learning would be hazardous if we relied solely on the consequence of our own actions”
~~> SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes
HOWEVER: not enough reference to biological factors
- Bandura: “biological differences influence our learning potential, but learning itself is governed by the environment”
- however research suggests that observational learning may be the result of mirror neurons in the brain which allow us to empathise with and imitate other people
~~> biological influences on social learning were under-emphasised in SLT

STRENGTH: supportive evidence from bobo doll study
- showed rewarded behaviour observed from others is more likely to lead to imitation of behaviour than no consequence or punishments
HOWEVER: contrived (artificial/strained/obviously planned) lab studies
- many of Bandura’s ideas were developed through observation of young children’s behaviour in the lab
- contrived nature has been criticised => demand characteristics
- regarding bobo doll study: could be argued that the main purpose of the doll was to strike it so the children were simply behaving in a way they thought was expected
~~> research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life

STRENGTH: real-world application
- explains cultural differences in behaviour; modelling, imitation and reinforcement can account for how many children learn from others around them/in the media => explains how norms are transmitted through societies
~~> increases value of approach; accounts for real-world behaviour
FURTHERMORE: age restrictions on games and movies

Question 16

LEARNING APPROACHES: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Outline one strength of social learning theory, regarding the importance of cognitive factors in learning.

Answer 16

P: One strength of social learning theory is that it offers a more adequate account of learning than other (behaviourist) perspectives
E: For example, it considers that humans and other animals do store information about the behaviour of others (by observing) and then use this information to make their own judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions (imitation). In addition, SLT also recognises the role of mediational processes. Bandura himself said “learning would be hazardous if we relied solely on the consequence of our own actions”
E: This is a strength because SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of learning by recognising these mediational processes. Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own.
E: However, there isn’t enough reference to biological factors for SLT to be a completely comprehensive explanation of behaviour. For example, Bandura said that “biological differences influence our learning potential, but learning itself is governed by the environment.” Yet, research suggests that observational learning may be the result of mirror neurons in the brain which allow us to empathise with and imitate other people. This suggests that any biological influences on social learning were under-emphasised in SLT.
L: As a result, the credibility of social learning theory is increased but only to a certain extent because it offers a more comprehensive understanding of behaviour than behaviourists but is not fully encompassing of all factors involved in influencing our behaviour.

Question 19

COGNITIVE APPROACH
Outline the 3 assumptions of the cognitive approach

Answer 19

• internal processes can and should be studied scientifically
• investigates private and unobservable processes that were neglected by behaviourists (e.g. memory perception and thinking)
• studying these indirectly by making inferences about the mind based on behaviour

Question 20

COGNITIVE APPROACH
Outline the theory of schemas in the cognitive approach

Answer 20

SCHEMA: a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing, developed from experience
- “packages” of ideas and info learned from experience
- e.g. schema for a chair: 4 legs, you can sit on it
- schemas help you respond appropriately to a stimulus
- babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours (grasping, sucking)
- schemas become more detailed and complex as we get older
- they help us to process lots of info quickly; helpful as a mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli

BUT schemas can distort our interpretation of sensory info => perceptual errors

Question 21

COGNITIVE APPROACH
Outline the theory of theoretical and computer models in the cognitive approach

Answer 21

• cognitive psychologists use theoretical and computer models to help them understand internal mental processes
• in reality, these models overlap; but theoretical models are abstract, computer models are concrete things

theoretical model example: ‘info processing approach’
- info flows through cognitive system in a series of stages, input, storage, retrieval (like in MSM of memory)
- this approach is based on the way a computer functions

computer model:
- programming a computer to see if such instructions produce a similar output to humans
- if they do then we can suggest that similar processes are going on in the human mind
- such computer models have proved useful for development of AI

Question 22

COGNITIVE APPROACH
Outline the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 22

cognitive neuroscience: scientific study of brain structures on mental processing

• Mapping brain areas to functions started in 1860s: Broca’s area => speech production (or impairment of)
• in last 25 years: brain imaging techniques (fMRI & PET scans) => we can systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes
• e.g. Buckner and Peterson (1996): episodic and semantic memory stored on different sides of prefrontal cortex
• e.g. Braver et al (1997): central executive thought to reside in prefrontal cortex or a similar area
• scanning techniques have proven useful in establishing neurological basis => link between parahippocampal gyrus and OCD (appears to play a role in processing unpleasant emotions)
• the focus of cognitive neuroscience has expanded recently, including use of computer-generated model that are designed to ‘read the brain’ => development of mind-mapping techniques (brain fingerprinting) (possible future application of this is analyse brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses as a lie detector in courts)

Question 23

COGNITIVE APPROACH
Evaluate the cognitive approach

Answer 23

STRENGTH: scientific methods, objective
- lab studies; highly controlled methods => able to infer cognitive processes at work
- cognitive neuroscience => biology + cognitive => increased scientific basis of approach
~~> study of the mind has a credible scientific basis
HOWEVER: potentially too theoretical
- relies on inferences of mental processes => often theories
- often artificial stimuli were used in experiments (memory tests with word lists) => unrepresentative of everyday experiences
~~> research on cognitive processes has low external validity
THEREFORE: decreased cred to an extent due to scientific nature but flawed key theories

STRENGTH: real-world application
- cognitive approach is dominant in psychology today => e.g. contribution to field of AI, contribution to treatment of depression, improved reliability of EWTs
~~> supports value of cognitive approach
PLUS: +VE implications for economy if patients are able to return to work due to reduced struggles with depression/reduced severity of symptoms
THEREFORE: cred increased due to real-world application

LIMITATION: machine reductionism
- computer analogy ignores influence of human emotion and motivation on cognitive system which may affect our ability to process info
- e.g. human memory impacted by anxiety (EWTs)
~~> machine reductionism weakens validity of cognitive approach
BUT: soft determinism
- appreciates role of free will and determinism
- thoughts are ‘freely’ chosen but only within the limits of our knowledge and experience
THEREFORE: cred increased to due appreciation of realistic balance

Question 24

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
Outline the 3 assumptions of the biological approach

Answer 24

• everything psychological is at first biological
• studying biological structures and processes within the body
• the mind lives in the brain: all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis (contrast to cognitive approach where mind and brain are separate)

Question 25

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH Outline the theory of the neurochemical basis of behaviour in the biological approach

Answer 25

NEUROCHEMICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR - much of our thought and behaviour relies on chemical transmission in brain neurotransmitters - imbalance of neurochemicals in brain has been implicated as a possible cause for mental disorders, e.g. low serotonin => OCD, high levels of dopamine => schizophrenia

Question 26

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH Outline the theory of the genetic basis of behaviour in the biological approach

Answer 26

GENETIC BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR - psychological characteristics (e.g. intelligence) are inherited just like eye colour - concordance rates in twin studies used to investigate genetic basis of behaviour; if characteristic is genetic, we'd expect concordance rate in MZ twins to be 100%, but not for DZ twins (in both cases the environment is assumed to be constant

Question 27

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH Outline the theory of genotype and phenotype in the biological approach

Answer 27

- genotype: genetic makeup - phenotype: the way genes are expressed through interaction with the environment - despite having the same genes, MZ twins' phenotype is different (e.g. dying their hair) => much of human behaviour depends on an interaction between inherited factors (nature) and the environment (nurture)

Question 28

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH Outline the theory of evolution and behaviour in the biological approach

Answer 28

DARWIN proposed natural selection (survival of the fittest) - any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual's chance of survival (and reproduction) will continue in future generations (i.e. be naturally selected)

Question 29

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH Evaluate the biological approach

Answer 29

STRENGTH: real-world application - understanding of neurochemical processes => use of psychiatric drugs to treat mental disorders - e.g. SSRI antidepressants reduce depressive symptoms ~~> people with depression may be able to better manage their condition and live in the community rather than in a hospital; positive implications for economy and improved QOL ----------------------> COUNTERPOINT: not effective for everyone - Cipriani et al (2018): compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in their effectiveness - although most drugs were more effective than placebos in comparative trials, the researchers concluded that the effects of antidepressants were 'mainly modest' ~~> challenges value of biological approach because it suggests that brain chemistry alone doesn't account for all cases (e.g. depression) STRENGTH: scientific methods - brain scans (fMRIs and PET scans) are accurate and unbiased in measuring physiological and neural processes ~~> much of biological approach is based on objective and reliable data HOWEVER: evolution lacks falsifiability - such a slow process that we cannot study it - threatens psychology's claim to be a science THEREFORE: reduced cred LIMITATION: biological determinism - suggests no free will/we have no control over our behaviour - however we know that phenotype is influenced by environmental factors - not even MZ twins think the same way PLUS: ethical implications - purely genetic argument is problematic regarding crime: violent criminal cannot pass responsibility onto a 'crime gene' ~~> biological view is often too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment PLUS: biologically reductionist to the lowest level of reductionism (neurochemical level) - focuses on neurotransmitters on development of mental disorders (serotonin on OCD or DA on Sz) - neglects influence of the environment THEREFORE: reduced cred of approach due to restricted view of behaviour

Question 31

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH Outline the 3 assumptions of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 31

- our behaviour can be explained by conflicts in the mind/unconscious mind is a driving force in behaviour - childhood experiences determine later adult behaviour - there is a focus on the individual e.g. use of case studies

Question 32

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH Outline the theory of the role of the unconscious in the psychodynamic approach

Answer 32

- the conscious mind is only the tip of the iceberg, most of it is made up of the unconscious mind - unconscious mind: a part of the mind we are unaware of but drives most of our behaviour. it is a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that have a significant influence on our behaviour and personality - can also contain threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed or locked away and forgotten, which can be accessed through dreams or slips of the tongue (called 'parapraxes') (calling Miss "Mum") - just under surface of conscious mind is the pre-conscious, containing thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but we can access if desired

Question 33

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH Outline the theory of the structure of the personality in the psychodynamic approach

Answer 33

id: entirely unconscious, made up of selfish, aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification - pleasure principle: gets what it wants - the only one present at birth ego: 'reality check', balances conflicting demands of the id and superego - reality principle - develops at 2yrs old - manages its roles by employing defence mechanisms superego: moralistic part of our personality, represents the ideal self - morality principle: represents the moral standards of the child's same-gender parent and punishes the ego for wrongdoing (through guilt) - formed at end of phallic stage, around 5yrs old (forms after child has resolved the Oedipus or Electra complex and is forced to identify with their same-sex parent

Question 34

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH Outline the theory of the psychosexual stages in the psychodynamic approach

Answer 34

Stage one: ORAL (0-1yrs) - description: focus of pleasure is on the mouth, mother's breast is the object of desire - consequence of unresolved conflict: oral fixations e.g. smoking, biting nails, being critical or sarcastic Stage two: ANAL (1-3yrs) - description: focus of pleasure is on anus; child gains pleasure by withholding and expelling faeces - consequence of unresolved conflict: anal retentive (perfectionist & obsessive) or anal expulsive (thoughtless & messy) Stage three: PHALLIC (3-6yrs) - description: focus of pleasure is on genital area - consequence of unresolved conflict: phallic personality (reckless & narcissistic) Stage four: LATENCY - earlier conflicts are repressed Stage five: GENITAL - description: sexual desire becomes conscious alongside the onset of puberty - consequence of unresolved conflict: difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

Question 35

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH Outline the theory of defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach

Answer 35

defence mechanisms: unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego, often involve some sort of distortion of reality - repression: forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind, e.g.) forgetting the trauma of a pet dying - denial: refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality, e.g.) continuing to turn up for work even though you've been sacked - displacement: transferring feelings from the true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target, e.g.) slamming the door after an argument as a long-term solution, these are unhealthy and undesirable

Question 36

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH Outline one strength of the psychodynamic approach, regarding explanatory power.

Answer 36

P: One strength of the psychodynamic approach is that is has explanatory power. E: For example, the psychodynamic approach (along with behaviourism) remained the dominant force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century and had been used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender. E: This is a strength because it has led to the development of treatments to help people with a variety of mental disorders, which can help improve their quality of life. E: Furthermore, by improving their conditions or reducing their symptoms, these individuals are more likely to be able to go back to work, which has positive implications for the economy. L: As a result, the value of the psychodynamic approach is increased due to its real-world application and explanatory power.

Question 37

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH Outline one limitation of the psychodynamic approach, regarding the case study method.

Answer 37

P: One limitation of the psychodynamic approach is that Freud often relied on the case study method. E: For example, Freud came up with the concept of the Oedipus complex through the case study on little Hans. Hans was a 5-year-old boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street. Freud suggested that Hans' phobia was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was displaced onto horses. Thus, horses were simply a symbolic representation of Hans real unconscious fear: the fear of castration experienced during the Oedipus complex. E: This is a weakness because case studies are an in-depth analysis of (in this case) one individual experience, giving it low population validity. This therefore often renders the findings ungeneralisable and difficult to make universal claims from. E: Furthermore, many of Freud's case studies were either his close friends or his supporters, which further reduces the validity of his research and therefore his findings, since these case studies would be subject to bias. L: As a result, the lack of scientific rigour reduces the credibility of the psychodynamic approach.

Question 38

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH Outline one limitation of the psychodynamic approach, regarding untestable concepts. FINISH

Answer 38

P: One limitation of the psychodynamic approach is that it relies on untestable concepts. E: For example, the philosopher of science, Karl Popper, argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification since many of his concepts are about the unconscious mind, which by nature we cannot see or investigate. E: This is a weakness because we can neither prove nor disprove many of Freud's concepts, such as the Oedipus complex because they are untestable and don't meet the scientific criteria of falsification. E: Furthermore, (psychic determinism: L: As a result, the lack of the scientific nature of the psychodynamic approach damages the integrity of the scientific nature of psychology.

Question 39

THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH Outline the 3 assumptions of the humanistic approach.

Answer 39

1) humans are self-determining and have free will 2) free will doesn't mean we aren't affected by other forces/influences but that we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development 3) humanistic psychologists (Rogers and Maslow) reject scientific models of human behaviour that attempt to establish general laws of principles. they state that psychology should study the subjective experience - the "person-centred approach"

Question 40

THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH Outline what Maslow meant by self-actualisation

Answer 40

- every person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential - self-actualisation represents the uppermost level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and all four lower levels must be met before the individual can work towards self-actualisation and fulfil their potential - humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as an essential part of what it means to be human - personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-orientated - not everyone will manage self-actualisation

Question 41

THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH Outline the 5 stages of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, starting from the most basic need.

Answer 41

1) physiological needs: breathing, food, sleep, clothing, shelter, water 2) safety and security: health, employment, property, family and social stability 3) love and belonging: friendship, family, intimacy, sense of connection 4) self-esteem: confidence, achievement, respect of others, the need to be a unique individual 5) self-actualisation: morality, creativity, spontaneity, acceptance, experience purpose, meaning and inner potential

Question 42

THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH Outline what Rogers meant by a state of incongruence.

Answer 42

Rogers claimed that for *personal growth* to be achieved, an individual's concept of *self* (the way they see themself) must be broadly equivalent to, or have *congruence* with, their *ideal self* (the person they'd like to be). If too big a gap exists between the two 'selves' then the person will be in a state of *incongruence* and *self-actualisation* will not be possible due to negative feelings of *self-worth* that arise from incongruence.

Question 43

THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH Outline the influence of counselling psychology, as described by Rogers.