Issues and Debates Flashcards
What is gender bias?
-the tendency to favour one gender over another in psychological research, theory/ practice
Universality
-research applies equally to everyone, regardless of time and culture
-assuming universality causes bias
why does gender bias happen?
-male samples are generalised to female
-male behaviour is seen as standard—} other behaviour from women is seen as deviating from the norm
-biological differences are over emphasised(so social + external factors are underestimated)
What is androcentrism?
-when normal behaviour is judged according to a male standard, so female behaviour is judged as abnormal in comparison
-may lead to women’s behaviour being pathologised(taken as a sign of illness) i.e PMS medicalises women’s emotions in their menstrual cycle whereas male behaviour is seen as a rational response to external pressures according to femenists
Consequences of androcentrism: alpha bias
-attempt to exaggerate the differences between the genders
-enhances/undervalues either sex but historically undervalues women
Examples of alpha bias
i.e Freud’s psychosexual stages= boys can resolve castration anxiety in the phallic stage to develop a strong superego but girls don’t identify as strongly with their mother so they have a weaker superego
-i.e Chodorow suggest that mothers and daughters have a greater connection that sons and mothers which is why women can bond and empathise better
Consequences of androcentrism: beta bias
-attempt to downplay the differences between the genders
-happens even when women have been excluded from the research process
Examples of beta bias
-biological research on the fight or flight response favours males but Taylor et al claimed that the ‘love’ hormone oxytocin is more in women and they produce it in response to stress—} more likely to tend and befriend
-Milgram found that 65% of his male ppts would shock up to 450v but didn’t look at obedience in women
Evaluating gender bias:
institutional sexism
-decisions made around publishing research are in the hands of men—} they predominate at senior researcher level, so research agenda follows male concern
-although psych undergraduates are mainly women, lecturers in depts are more likely to be men(Murphy 2014)
-Researchers may have gendered expectations of women to perform poorly on tasks/be irrational which may disadvantage female ppts(Nicholson 1995)
-bias in the institutional structure= gender bias
Evaluating gender bias:
misleading stereotypes
-essentialist perspective= gender differences are ‘inevitable’ and fixed within nature
-gives scientific evidence to support harmful claims i.e Walkerdine(1990) reported that research in 1930s suggested that intellectual activity i.e going to uni would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and reduce chances of childbirth
-in a domain in which men set the standard of normalcy, Carol Tavris(1993) -‘it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal’
Evaluating gender bias:
Reflexivity
-Researcher’s values + assumptions can have an affect on their work—} must embrace it as a crucial part of their research
-Dambrin & Lambert(2008) studied the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms—} reflected on how their gender related experiences influence their reading of events
-may lead to greater awareness of the role of personal biases in shaping research in the future
Evaluating gender bias:
Input of feminist psychologists
-Worrel(1992)= women should be researched in real life contexts and genuinely participate
-diversity within groups of women should be examined rather than comparisons between women & men
-greater emphasis on collaborative research methods that collect qualitative data
What is culture bias?
-interpreting and judging behaviour/characteristics of a culture by holding them to the standards of your own
-ignoring the effects that cultural differences may have on behaviour
(cultural) Universality
-mainstream psych has generally ignored culture as an important influence on behaviour—} wrongly assume universality
-i.e Milgram’s study of obedience was only tested on American ppts but showed different results when Kilman and Mann(1974) replicated in Australia= 16% women and 40% men in comparison to Milgram’s 65%
Culture bias in the psychological field
-Henrich et al(2010) reviewed hundreds of studies in journals and found that 68% of research ppts came from the US and 96% were from industrialised nations
-coined the term WEIRD to for ppts:
Westernised
Educated
Industrialised
Rich
Democracies
-Ammet(2008) found that 80% of research ppts were undergrads studying psychology students
What is culture and subculture?
-a system of beliefs and customs shared by a group of people
Ethnocentrism (+examples)
-the belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group
-i.e Ainsworth and Bell’s strange situation—} led to misinterpretation of child rearing practices in other countries which were seen to deviate from the “norm” (Takahashi + Japanese babies)
Emic constructs
-applies only in cultural group and focuses on uniqueness + culturally specific phenomena
-interested in immersion(studying from within the culture)
-leads to cultural relativism= behaviour can only be understood in the context of the norms of that culture
Etic constructs
-theoretical idea that is assumed to apply in all cultural groups
-involves applying studies from outside the culture and producing universal claims
-leads to cultural bias if a research assumes that an emic construct is etic
What is imposed etic?
-assumes that culture does not affect results, so research is applicable to all cultures
-results in ethnocentrism(seeing own culture as ‘norm’ and deviation within other cultures as abnormal)
-Van Ijzendoorn rejected Ainsworth’s universal attachment types: “the meaning of behaviour can only be understood with reference to its cultural context”
Evaluating culture bias:
(Implications) reinforce racism + prejudice
-Gould(1981) explained how the first IQ test’s design disadvantaged AAs and supported scientific racism, i.e assuming everyone knows all the American presidents —} led to eugenic social policies after WW1 (‘breeding out’ undesirable characteristics)
-Dove(1968) developed an IQ test suitable for AAs and found that others struggled with the culturally specific content
Evaluating culture bias:
classic studies are not widely applicable
-Asch’s study was conducted in individualist cultures, who are thought to value personal freedom and independence
-but in Smith and Bond’s Asch-like study, collectivist cultures had a significantly higher rate of conformity
HOWEVER in an age of media globalisation, the individualistic-collectivist gap grows smaller
-Takano and Osaka(1999) found that 14/15 studies comparing US and China just assumed individual/collectivist without evidence
Evaluating culture bias:
Reduce it using emic research
-Mead lived with and observed the Samoan community for her study ‘Coming of Age in Samoa’ where she explored the social, sexual and psychological development of samoan teens
-was able to highlight the flexible gender roles and openness towards sexuality
-groundbreaking anthropology work
Evaluating culture bias:
Derived etic
-lots of cultural emic tests undertaken in local areas + by local investigators to build a bigger picture
-i.e Buss et al studies male preferences—} data collected from 37 cultures using local researchers and was able to establish the general trend that women desire a mate with resources and men based on physical attraction
What is free will?
-the notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces
What is determinism?
-the view that an individuals behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal/external forces rather than an individual’s will to do something
-hard determinism suggests that all human behaviour has a cause which should be identified and described
-soft determinism suggests that what determines our behaviour to an extent does not determine our free will to make conscious choices
Different types of determinism
-Biological determinism= the belief that behaviour is caused by biological (genetic, hormonal, evolutionary) influences that we cannot control
-Psychic determinism= the belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control
-Environmental determinism= the belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward + punishment) that we cannot control
the approaches in free will vs determinism
-Behaviourist approach= environmental determinism—} Skinner described free will as an illusion and argued that all behaviour is the result of conditioning(hard determinism)
-Biological approach= everything psychological is at first biological, so behaviour can be explained by internal forces i.e autonomic nervous system on the stress response
-Psychodynamic approach= psychic determinism—} Freud said the unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood (hard determinism)
-Humanistic approach= free will—} humans can make personal choices and are not influenced by internal/external forces
Evaluating determinism
scientific evidence
-deterministic approaches helped establish psychology as a science i.e biological approach
-leads to causality(everything has a cause), which allows general laws to be established + phenomena to be predicted
-positive implications= effective real world application in treatments i.e psychoactive drugs in the biological drugs
Evaluating determinism
too simplistic
-oversimplifies human behaviour
-i.e Lorenz suggested that imprinting in earlier life to a maternal figure leads to sexual imprinting
-human behaviour is less rigid and influenced by many factors, i.e cognitive factors and biological impulses
Evaluating determinism
not acknowledged by law
-hard deterministic stance is not consistent with how the law works–} defendant exercised their FREE WILL when committing a crime
-i.e Stephen Mobley(notorious serial killer)’s lawyers used the fact that his family had a criminal past and that he may have had a chemical imbalance to excuse his behaviour
-socially sensitive as victims aren’t given justice/ families are not given peace of mind
Evaluating free will
strong practical value
-thinking that we exercise free will in every day life can improve mental health
-Roberts et al (2000) looked at adolescents who had a strong sense of ‘fatalism’(believing that life is decided by events out of your control), and found that they were at greater risk of developing depression
-people with an internal LOC are more likely to be optimistic
-even if we don’t have complete free will, believing so has a positive effect on the mind
Evaluating free will
not supported by brain scan evidence
-Libet et al(1983) instructed ppts to choose a random moment to flick their wrist while he measured ‘readiness potential’ (activity in their brain)
-ppts had to say when they felt the conscious will to move
-Libet found that the unconscious behaviour activated 1/2 a second before conscious movement
History of nature v nurture
-Rene Descartes= nativist(1590s)–} some aspects of human behaviour are innate and hereditary
-John Locke= empiricist(1630s)–} born as a blank slate at birth(tabula rasa), experience dictates who we are + our behaviour
-Lerner(1988) different levels of the environment, including prenatal factors i.e the physical influences like smoking, on a foetus.
-could also be social conditions, cultural contexts + historical contexts
What is the difference between nature and nurture?
-the nature argument explains that all behaviour is caused by your biology whereas the nurture argument explains that all behaviour is explained by environmental factors
The biological approach
NATURE
-focuses on genetic, hormonal and neurochemical explanations of behaviour
i.e imbalance of neurochemicals are a possible cause for mental disorder–} excess levels of dopamine= schizophrenia, low levels of serotonin= OCD
The psychodynamic approach
NATURE
-innate drives of sex and aggression
-BUT social upbringing during childhood also has an impact
Cognitive psychology
-innate mental structures such as schemas, perceptions + memory
-constantly changed by the environment
Humanistic psychology
NURTURE
-Maslow emphasised basic physical needs
-society influences a person’s self concept
Behaviourism
NURTURE
-all behaviour is learned from the environment through conditioning
Heritability coefficient
-concordance indicates the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis
-closer to 1= genes contribute more to individual differences + vice versa
-general figure for heritability in IQ is around 0.5 across multiple studies in varying cultures(Plomin 1994)
Studies that demonstrate nature
-Lorenz’s goslings= born with innate drive to imprint to first moving object it sees
-twin concordance rates= higher rates mean they show more similar characteristics
-localisation of function= Broca’s area is critical for speech production
Studies that demonstrate nurture
-Ainsworth’s strange situation= children show different attachment types based on rearing i.e more time spent with the mother meant they were more likely to be type C
-Harlow and Harlow’s Rhesus monkeys= monkeys reared with wire mothers showed more aggressive behaviour in later life than those reared with cloth mother due to lack of comfort
-Pavlov’s dogs= conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell
-SLT (role models, imitation, vicarious reinforcement)
The interactionist approach
-any behaviour/characteristic is a combination of both i.e eye colour has a heritability rate of .80
-i.e Bowlby claimed that attachment type is determined by the warmth + continuity of parental love (nurture) whereas Kagan proposed that a baby’s innate personality also had an affect(nature)
-modern day psychology tends to look at the ‘relative contribution’ of each influence rather than one or the other
Diathesis-stress model
-behaviour is caused by a biological/environmental vulnerability(diathesis) which is only expressed when coupled with a biological/environmental ‘stressor’
-i.e OCD has a genetic vulnerability but may only be developed as a disorder when combined with a psychological trigger
Epigenetics
-refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing the genes themselves
-happens throughout life + is caused by interactions with the environment
-aspects of our lifestyle leave ‘marks’ on our DNA, which switch genes on/off–} lasting impact on gene expression + genetic codes of offspring
Evaluating nature vs nurture
adoption studies
-useful in establishing the debate because they separate in the competing influences of nature v nurture i.e whether a child is more similar to adoptive parents or biological ones
-meta analysis by Rhee and Waldman found that genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression
HOWEVER Plomin argues that people create their own nurture by selecting environments appropriate for their nature(niche-picking) i.e aggressive child being friends with other aggressive children
Evaluating nature vs nurture
real world application
-can be used to predict the likelihood of developing a mental disorder i.e Nesdadt et al put the heritability rate of OCD at .76
-this can inform genetic counselling where people can recieve advice about the likelihood of developing a disorder and how they might prevent this
-has practical value
Evaluating nature vs nurture
promotes eugenics
-Nativists suggesting that ‘anatomy is destiny’ promotes the linking between ethnicity, genetics and intelligence + the application of eugenics policies
-behaviour shaping (behaviourism technique to reinforce certain behaviours) may be used to push the idea that certain traits are ‘abnormal’, which is socially sensitive
Evaluating nature vs nurture
outdated
-nature and nurture cannot be separated from each other when looking at human behaviour
-Hebb showed that an inherited disorder could be prevented through a strict diet–} meat, eggs, fish, soy etc couldn’t be metabolised + could cause brain damage, so by avoiding these foods, brain damage could be prevented
Holism
-a way of looking at behaviour as a whole and takes into account all of the elements rather than focusing on one
-Gestalt psychology= ‘the whole is greater than the sum of parts’ –} helps us understand the essence of the person
-use qualitative methods to investigate themes of behaviour + based on individual experience
Reductionism
-seeks to analyse behaviour by breaking down its constituent parts
-based around the scientific principle of parsimony= all behaviour should be explained using the most basic (lowest levels) principles
3 types of reductionism: biological reductionism
-explains social + psychological phenomena at a lower biological level i.e genes + hormones
-i.e drugs that increase serotonin have found to be effective in treating OCD–} reduced OCD to neurotransmitter activity
3 types of reductionism: environmental determinism
-all behaviour is learned through interactions with the environment
-reduces behaviour to basic physical elements
-explained through stimulus - response i.e conditioning
-i.e learning theory of attachment reduces the idea of love to a learned association between the person doing the feeding (neutral stimulus) and food(unconditional stimulus) resulting pleasure(conditioned stimulus)
3 types of reductionism: machine reductionism
-suggest the brain is like a computer in terms of input-process-output
-i.e theoretical models(WMM + MSM) + computer models(programming AI to imitate the human minds)
What is meant by levels of explanations?
-different ways to explain behaviour
-each one is more reductionist than the one before
Levels of explanations: Socio-cultural level
-holism= the highest level of explanations
-explanation based on an understanding of the social/cultural environment
Levels of explanations: psychological level
-cognitive(machine reductionism)
-explanation based on info processing i.e attention, memory
Levels of explanations: physical level
-behavioural
-explanation based on learning processes i.e classical + operant conditioning
Levels of explanations: physiological
-biological level
-explanation based on biological influences i.e genes + neurotransmitters
Levels of explanations: Neurochemical level
-reductionism= lowest level of explanation
-i.e underproduction of serotonin
Hierarchy of science
-sociology, psychology, biology, chem, physics
-reductionist psychologists attempt to use more scientific explanations for psychology
Linking to the approaches
-Humanistic approach= (holistic), focus on subjective experience to understand meaningful human behaviour i.e counselling psychology is non-directive
-Psychodynamic approach= (holism), used case studies, which is a qualitative method to investigate personal experience
-Behaviourist approach= (reductionist), behaviour stems from learning association/consequences i.e Skinner’s rats
-Biological approach= (reductionist), everything psychological is at first biological, could test scientifically i.e Carre et al found a surge in testosterone whenever ice hockey players played a home game
Evaluating Holism/Reductionism
practical value
-holism focuses on multiple factors that can affect behaviour i.e cognitive, emotional, social, cultural etc
-hard to generalise findings i.e Freud used the Little Hans case study to support the Oedipus complex
-whereas reductionism focuses less on complexity, making it easier to prioritise one explanation + base therapy on that i.e psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders like anti-depressants
Evaluating Holism/Reductionism
basis of a scientific approach
-reductionism allows for operationalisation of variables by breaking down target behaviours into constituent parts
-possible to conduct experiments/observations i.e Ainsworth’s strange situation operationalised observable behaviours like separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, reunion response, proximity seeking etc
-gives psychology greater credibility
-However, holism provides a more complex understanding of behaviour, thus increasing validity
-i.e Maslow’s hierarchy of needs focuses on various factors like physiological needs, need for safety etc
Evaluating Holism/Reductionism
being a full explanation of behaviour
-reductionism may oversimplify behaviour that can only be understood at a higher level
-i.e the effects of conformity to social roles in the Stanford prison study can only be understood by looking at ppts as a group
-However, holism provides a wider account of psychology–} has a more positive outlook as a consequence i.e the humanistic approach focuses on free will and self-development
Evaluating Holism/Reductionism
subjective experience
-reductionism would restrict the explanations of a process to one basis i.e explain conscious thoughts via ‘thinking machines’, which acts as the basis to cog neuroscience (thoughts are associated with physical processes in the brain)
-holism would instead focus on the subjective experience of the neural process–} referred to as the ‘explanatory gap’ by Levine (1983) + may suggest we think faster than we act
The idiographic approach
-involves the study of individuals + the unique insights each individual gives about human behaviour
-seeks individuality
-qualitative because the methods used gain insight into behaviour by studying individuals in-depth
-cannot predict human behaviour
idiographic methods
-unstructured interviews=open ended, conversation-style interview, important for building rapport
-case studies= in-depth investigations of one individual/group/event
-thematic analysis=identifying + reporting patterns in qualitative data
examples of idiographic
-Carl Rogers explained the process of self-development through unconditional positive regard, which was developed through in-depth conversations with therapy clients
-Freud’s observation of Little Hans led him to explain how phobias develop and manifest themselves in later life
Nomothetic approach
-involves the study of a large number of people
-seeks to make generalisations or develop laws/theories about human behaviour–} scientific approach
-seeks universality
-quantitative, based on numbers i.e measures of central tendency, dispersion, graphs, statistical analysis
-can predict human behaviour
Nomothetic methods
-questionnaires= pre set list of written questions to assess ppts on thoughts/feelings
-content analysis=analysing data by placing them in categories and counting the occurrence of ‘flagged’ info
-structured interviews= list of prepared questions in a set order
examples of nomothetic
-B.F skinner studied rats to understand learning through consequences(operant conditioning) and establish general laws about it
-Milgram used large sample sizes and carried out objective variations of his lab experiment to establish general laws about obedience
Objective vs subjective
-nomothetic approach= establishes objective laws through standardised methods, ensures replication can occur and reduces the influence of bias
-idiographic approach= preserves the importance of individual experience in its unique context
Evaluating the idiographic approach
focus on the individual
-humanistic psychologists + qualitative researchers have worked to restore the fundamental aim of understanding what it is to be human
-Allport, who was the first to use idio/nomo terms, argued that predictions of behaviour can only be established by understanding that person as an individual
-positive implications as it may have inspired person-centred therapy used in the humanistic approach–} ‘it is the client that knows what hurts’ Carl Rogers
Evaluating the nomothetic approach
loss of understanding the individual
-due to attempting to establish general laws + predictions, it has been accused of ‘losing the whole person’
-i.e Ciprani et al found that wide variety in the effectiveness of anti-depressants across 21 types, and concluded the effects as ‘mainly modest’–} understanding subjective experience is useful when devising appropriate treatments
Evaluating the nomothetic + idiographic approach
scientific credibility
-nomothetic approach uses scientific processes i.e establishing objectivity via standardisation
-idiographic approaches can be used to further enrich the data collected i.e triangulation is used, where a range of studies using different qualitative methods are compared to increase validity
-modern qualitative researchers use reflexivity to identify the influence of any biases in our research i.e thinking critically about factors that may affect the behaviour of both ppts and researchers
Evaluating the nomothetic + idiographic approach
distinct vs collaborative
-some research establishes the approaches as distinctive in their findings i.e Schaffer’s stages of attachment(nomothetic) establish general stages of attachment whereas Romanian orphan case studies(idiographic) focus on the subjective experience of not forming a strong attachment
-however, using both approaches collaboratively could have positive implications i.e cases like HM (intact STM but damaged LTM) could be used to shed light on further study i.e used to support the existence of different stores in MSM
What are ethical issues?
-issues arising that cause a conflict between the rights + dignity of ppts and the aims of research
-BPS code of conduct protect ppts and guide researchers
What are ethical implications?
-the consequences that psychological research may have on individuals, group and wider society
Social sensitivity
-negative ethical implications
-Sieber and Stanley(1988) coined the term to describe studies where there are potential social consequences for ppts/represented groups and a change in how they are perceived
-may be related to policy changes i.e in the 1920s, the results of skewed IQ tests interpreted to fit political agendas and ‘sanction’ racist policies, like the eugenics driven policy of restricting immigration
Socially sensitive research
-Ainsworth’s strange situation= culturally bias as it is based on results from British/American babies
-Bowlby’s theory of monotropy= the law of accumulated separation insinuates that mothers must always be with their infants for positive development
-Agentic state= endorses those who do not take responsibility for their own actions i.e Abu Ghraib prison justified by Charles Graner
Lowney(1995): Socially sensitive
-carried out ppt observations of a group of teenage satan*sts in a small American town–} documented their views on society + their activities i.e listening to music, underage drinking
-concluded that their lifestyle was a symbol of rejecting the heirarchial nature of high school
:( -unpopular, isolated children may see this research as a self fulfilling prophecy
:) -helps explain anti social behaviour and may break down hierarchical barriers
Research on black athletes: ethical implications
-research found that African athletes are more likely to biologically have a great stamina + speed i.e lower heart rate, lean shape of legs
:) -provides scientific evidence in place of rumours that cloud the judgement of those in the sports industry
:( -invalidates the work ethic and achievements of African athletes i.e Kip Keine, olympic gold medalists
Evaluating ethical implications:
cost-benefit analysis
-benefits of the research outweigh the negative implications–} DSM 1 listed homosexuality as a sociopathic personality disorder in 1952, but revoked this in 1973
-credited to the Kinsley report based on 5000 men and 6000 women, which caused outrage at its time
HOWEVER research could have a negative cost i.e research investigating the genetic basis of criminality could be used to argue against conviction, like the Mobley case
-consider harmful outcomes
Evaluating ethical implications:
poor research design
-may lead to erroneous findings, which has a long lasting impact
-i.e Cyril Burt’s research helped establish the 11+ exam, based on twin studies that showed that intelligence was heritable and detectable from age 11
-exposed as fraud, with 2 ‘imaginary’ research assistants but the 11+ is still used as a selection tool for grammar schools
Evaluating ethical implications:
altering the research method
-adapt the methodology in order to reduce the harm we could cause to wider social groups + ppts
-research questions= Sieber + Stanley warn that the phrasing of questions may influence the interpretations of the question
-dealing with ppts= consent, confidentiality + psychological harm must be maintained to protect ppts
-use of the findings= reflexivity is needed to prevent giving credibility to existing bias
Evaluating ethical implications:
real world application
-policy making relies on research related to socially sensitive topics
-basing policies on credible scientific research on topics such as childcare, education etc fares better than politically-motivated views
-groups like the ONS(office for national statistics) are described as responsible for collecting + analysing statistics about the UK’s economy + population–} can be used in psychological research
-i.e research has improved understanding of the impacts of early institutionalisation + preventing worse effects (Langton 2006)
-improved conditions for care children i.e smaller number of children per care homes, one/two ‘key workers’ who play a central role in emotional development
