Approaches in psychology Flashcards
Who was Wilhelm Wundt?
opened the first ever lab dedicated entirely to psychology in 1879
What is the ‘scientific method’?
-assuming that all behaviour is determined and therefore it should be possible to predict human behaviour in different controlled conditions.
What were the 3 investigative methods used by Wundt?
-objective= not influenced by personal feelings/opinions
-systematic= done according to a methodological plan
-replicable= ability to reproduce results
Introspection definition
‘looking inwards’
-first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic thoughts, images and sensations.
Introspection in action
(aim and procedure)
-wanted to develop theories about mental processes
-trained his graduate researchers to make personal observations of how he and his co workers reacted to different stimuli they were presented with i.e a ticking metronome
-analysed using structuralism= isolating structure of consciousness, done by using same stimuli
Evaluating Wundt
controlled environment(scientific)
-methods were systematic and well controlled i.e introspection recordings in a lab
-standardised procedure reduces extraneous variables
-forerunner for other approaches
Evaluating Wundt
subjective data
-relied on ppts self reporting their mental processes which would be influenced by perspective
-ppts may have hid some thoughts
-hard to use data to predict future behaviour(an aim of science)
Evaluating Wundt
supporting research
-contemporary studies have used introspection
i.e Griffiths(1994) asked gamblers to think aloud while playing a fruit machine, to see if its different to non gamblers(upon analysis they were)
Evaluating Wundt
Wundt’s contribution
-produced the first academic journal for psychological research + 1st textbook
-set foundation for future approaches
The emergence of psychology as a science
1900s behaviourists
-introspection questioned by John B Watson + BF skinner due to subjective data and difficulty to establish general laws
-proposed that psych should only study what should be objectively measured/observed
The emergence of psychology as a science
1950s cognitive approach
-digital revolution influenced psychologists to liken the mind to a computer i.e MSM
-tested predictions about memory + attention using experiments
The emergence of psychology as a science
1980s Biological approach
-taken advantage of advances in tech to investigate physiological processes i.e fMRI and EEG to study live activity in the brain/ genetic testing to understand relationship between genes and behaviour
Evaluation of the emergence of psychology as a science
modern psychology
-can claim to be scientific as they all use scientific methods + discipline to fulfil aim of learning and understanding behaviour i.e controlled lab studies
Evaluation of the emergence of psychology as a science
Subjective data
-humanist approach rejects scientific approach, focussing on individual experiences.
-active ppts in research can respond to demand characteristics so study of human thought may not always be possible
Evaluation of the emergence of psychology as a science
lack of a paradigm
-Philosopher Thomas Kuhn said that any science must have a paradigm(set of principles that all in the field agree on)
-said psych is not a science because it does not have a paradigm at its core
What is the behaviourist theory?
-interested in studying behaviour that can be observed not mental processes like introspection.
-objective and controlled research i.e lab studies
-believes that babies are born ‘tabula rasa’ and we all(even animals) have the same basic processes that govern learning
Assumptions of the behaviourist approach
-not concerned with ‘irrelevant’ mental processes of the mind
-John B Watson(1913) rejected introspection due to vague concepts
What are the 3 ways of learning?
-learning through consequence(operant conditioning)
-learning through imitation(social learning theory)
-learning through association(classical conditioning)
Classical conditioning
-passive process of learning by association
-only a UCS can trigger a UCR(naturally occurs)
-A NS would not trigger UCR
-only in the UCS presence, the NS would be associated to the UCS and would trigger a UCR
-over time, the NS= a CS and would trigger a CR on its own
Classical conditioning-
Pavlov(1927)
-dogs could be conditioned to salivate at sound of a bell by repeatedly serving food after the sound.
-gradually, they learned to associate the bell with food and would produce saliva at the sound
-showed that a neutral stimulus can become a learned/conditioned response via association
definition of punishment
consequence of behaviour that decreases likelihood of behaviour repeating
Operant conditioning
-Skinner(1958) suggested learning is an active process whereby humans and animals can operate on their environment. Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences i.e reinforcement and punishment
Reinforcement and punishment
-REINFORCEMENT:
+, receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed(physical or intrinsic i.e good feeling)
-, avoiding/removal of something unpleasant by performing behaviour as encouragement
-PUNISHMENT:
+, receiving an unpleasant consequence after performing a behaviour
-, removal of something pleasant after a behaviour
B.F Skinner’s research(1953)
-placed rats in controlled environment(box)where he could manipulate stimuli
-the hungry rat would first accidently knock the lever and receive a food pellet.
-rat would learn if they press the lever they received food.(+ reinforcement)
-rat was subjected to an uncomfortable shock and would knock the lever by accident and turning it off
-rats learned that when the current came on they had to press the lever to remove it.
Evaluating the behaviourist approach
well-controlled research
-focused on measurement of observable behaviours within highly controlled lab settings.
-stimulus=response reduces extraneous variables and allow cause and effect to be established i.e skinner demonstrating reinforcement.(reliability)
COUNTERPOINT: oversimplified the learning process + ignored the influence of human thought and complexity of mental processes.
Evaluating the behaviourist approach
real-life application
-operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems in institutions and psych wards.
-behaviours are reinforced by tokens(secondary reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards(primary reinforcers)
-has widespread application(external validity)
Evaluating the behaviourist approach
Environmental determinism
(view that behaviours are caused by external features of the environment that cannot be controlled)
-behaviourist psychologists believe that behaviour stems from learning by association/consequences and makes idea of free will redundant.
-Skinner suggested everything we do is a sum of reinforcement history
-subjective as as eliminates co-existing internal factors i.e bio factors
-incomplete explanation + limits is usage
Evaluating the behaviourist approach
Ethical issues
-Skinner’s rats were kept hungry +underweight in cramped conditions
-viable costs that may outweigh benefits of gaining supporting research
-eliminates replicability in modern-day studies
COUNTERPOINT: procedures like Skinner’s box allowed behaviourists to maintain high degree of control in experiments
Assumptions of the social learning theory
Bandura suggested behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of others, especially role models for approval/reward.
-learning occurs directly(conditioned) AND indirectly, combining learning + cognitive theory
-focuses on how mental factors are involved in learning
Bandura’s stance on behaviourism
-agreed that behaviour is learned from experience but it suggested that the mind is like a black box, only focussing on stimulus + response
Process of having a role model
-MODELLING: person models a behaviour in person/online
-IDENTIFICATION: observer identifies with a likely role model (similarity, status, attractiveness, rewards)
-OBSERVATION: observer notices behaviour that is being modelled.
IMITIATION: observer imitates the behaviour, anticipating reward
What is vicarious reinforcement?
-imitation only occurs if the behaviour is seemed to be rewarded, less likely to be imitated if model is punishment
(vicarious rewards= will imitate, vicarious punishment = will avoid)
-observer learns behaviour and consequences for behaviour
What is the mediational process?
mental (cognitive) factors that intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new behaviour is acquired or not.
Steps of mediational process
ARRM
-Attention(is paid to role model)
-Retention(of the behaviour being observed)
-Reproduction(ability of observer to perform behaviour)
-Motivation(will to perform behaviour depending on reward/punishment)
Identification
people are more likely to have a role model that they identify with:
-similar characteristics i.e age, gender, ethnicity
-high status
-model’s behaviour is perceived as attractive/likeable
-model’s behaviour is reinforced through rewards
(seen a lot in children)
Study 1: Bandura, Ross and Ross(1961) - Imitating role models
Aim:
to find out if children would show more aggressive behaviour if exposed to an aggressive role model & less aggressive behaviour if exposed to non aggressive. Also to see if sex of RM & child made difference.
Procedure:
-Used equal no. of boys & girls (36) & measured how aggressive they were on 5 point scale made by nursery teacher and experimenter then put in groups based on score
-Children playing in rooms where (1) aggressive model comes in & pushes/punches/swears at bobo doll & hits with mallet, (2) non-aggressive model played quietly alongside kids in the model room
-in the arousal room, children’s toys were taken away for ‘other kids’ to insight agression
-observation room had mixture of agressive/non agressive toys and two way mirror meant experiments kept tally of behaviours
Results:
-G1 kids were aggressive with bobo doll in same way adult RM Ws.
-In G2, & control group, around 70% children had score of 0 for aggression.
-Male RM had bigger influence than female.
Conclusions:
-Behaviour can be learned by imitation even without reinforcement.
-Male RM more influential - cultural expectations.
-Verbal aggression was sex-typed, girls imitated women & boys imitated men. Imitate who they identify with.
Study 2: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1963a) - Replication, using filmed RMs
Aim:
-Find out if kids become more aggressive when exposed to aggressive RM in film/less realistic cartoon than live RM
-Test popular idea that filmed aggressions is cathartic. (Makes calm because it vents aggression)
Procedure:
-Same as original with extra condition of where children watched film where female adult model was dressed as cartoon cat following script.
Results:
-Control group carried out half as much aggression.
-No significant difference with live/filmed/cartoon models.
Conclusions:
-Concluded children imitate filmed and live aggression the same way.
-Watching filmed violence is not cathartic & encourages more aggression.
Study 3: Bandura (1965) - Replication, with rewards & punishments
Aim:
-To find out if children are more likely to imitate an RM who’s rewarded & less likely to imitate RM being punished.
-See if children are more likely to imitate when offered rewards.
Procedure:
-Basic procedure is same as original.
-Model “Rocky” went through scripted routine of aggressive behaviour.
-In reward condition, he was offered sweets & praised for “superb aggressive performance”.
-In punishment condition, he was called a “big bully” and hit with a rolled up newspaper.
-No consequences condition = nothing happened.
-Children asked to “show what rocky did” & if there was imitative aggression, they were rewarded. positive incentive condition.
Results:
-Model reward condition produced about same imitation from girls & boys as the no consequence condition.
-Model punished produced much less imitation, especially in girls (0.5).
-After positive incentive, imitation increased across all conditions.
Conclusions:
-Children less likely to imitate punished RMs. However, no consequences condition shows behaviour doesn’t have to be punished/rewarded to be imitated.
-When offered incentives, children who watched model be punished show they learnt aggressive behaviour.
-Girls are more restrained with threats of punishment.
Evaluation of SLT
cognitive factors
-recognises importance of cognitive factors in learning and looks at how humans+animals store info about the behaviour of others and use it to make judgements on personal behaviours
-“from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are formed”(Bandura 1997)
-comprehensive explanation of human learning due to mediational process
HOWEVER= too little focus* in biological factors i.e observational learning being result of mirror neurons in brain which lead to empathy and imitation.
*(only said bio differences influence learning potential)
Evaluating SLT
evidence gathered through lab studies
-Most of Bandura’s ideas developed through observation of young children’s behaviour in lab
-contrived nature with risk of demand characteristics
-main purpose of bobo doll is to strike it so the children may have been acting in a way they thought was expected
-may tell us very little about children learning aggression in everyday life = lacks ecological validity
Evaluation of SLT
real world application
-explains cultural differences in behaviour(modelling, imitation and reinforcement) + how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies, even media
-useful in understanding behaviours i.e child’s understanding of gender roles
Evaluation of SLT
reciprocal determinism
-Bandura says we are influenced by environment but we have free will in whether we choose to imitate it through our behaviours
-contrasts with the behaviourist approach which denies possibility of free will
Basic assumptions of the cognitive approach
-considers how our internal mental processes(thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour
-argues that these processes should be studied scientifically and not neglected, like behaviourists did
-studied by making inferences about what is going on in the mind based on behaviour
Define inferences
process by which cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour i.e memory study = results = STM capacity is 7+/- 2
The cognitive approach: Ideologies
-Compares the human mind to a computer by suggesting there are similarities in the way we process info.
-Input -> process -> output
(environment, coding/store, response)
Differences:
-humans add meaning to what they input (interpretations).
-computers ALWAYS pay attention.
-direct input through keyboard.
Focused on how internal processes (thoughts) affect behaviour; memory, problem solving, language etc.
