Approaches in psychology

Question 1

Who was Wilhelm Wundt?

Answer 1

opened the first ever lab dedicated entirely to psychology in 1879

Question 2

What is the ‘scientific method’?

Answer 2

-assuming that all behaviour is determined and therefore it should be possible to predict human behaviour in different controlled conditions.

Question 3

What were the 3 investigative methods used by Wundt?

Answer 3

-objective= not influenced by personal feelings/opinions
-systematic= done according to a methodological plan
-replicable= ability to reproduce results

Question 4

Introspection definition

Answer 4

‘looking inwards’
-first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic thoughts, images and sensations.

Question 5

Introspection in action
(aim and procedure)

Answer 5

-wanted to develop theories about mental processes
-trained his graduate researchers to make personal observations of how he and his co workers reacted to different stimuli they were presented with i.e a ticking metronome
-analysed using structuralism= isolating structure of consciousness, done by using same stimuli

Question 6

Evaluating Wundt

controlled environment(scientific)

Answer 6

-methods were systematic and well controlled i.e introspection recordings in a lab
-standardised procedure reduces extraneous variables
-forerunner for other approaches

Question 7

Evaluating Wundt

subjective data

Answer 7

-relied on ppts self reporting their mental processes which would be influenced by perspective
-ppts may have hid some thoughts
-hard to use data to predict future behaviour(an aim of science)

Question 8

Evaluating Wundt

supporting research

Answer 8

-contemporary studies have used introspection
i.e Griffiths(1994) asked gamblers to think aloud while playing a fruit machine, to see if its different to non gamblers(upon analysis they were)

Question 9

Evaluating Wundt

Wundt’s contribution

Answer 9

-produced the first academic journal for psychological research + 1st textbook
-set foundation for future approaches

Question 10

The emergence of psychology as a science

1900s behaviourists

Answer 10

-introspection questioned by John B Watson + BF skinner due to subjective data and difficulty to establish general laws
-proposed that psych should only study what should be objectively measured/observed

Question 11

The emergence of psychology as a science

1950s cognitive approach

Answer 11

-digital revolution influenced psychologists to liken the mind to a computer i.e MSM
-tested predictions about memory + attention using experiments

Question 12

The emergence of psychology as a science

1980s Biological approach

Answer 12

-taken advantage of advances in tech to investigate physiological processes i.e fMRI and EEG to study live activity in the brain/ genetic testing to understand relationship between genes and behaviour

Question 13

Evaluation of the emergence of psychology as a science

modern psychology

Answer 13

-can claim to be scientific as they all use scientific methods + discipline to fulfil aim of learning and understanding behaviour i.e controlled lab studies

Question 14

Evaluation of the emergence of psychology as a science

Subjective data

Answer 14

-humanist approach rejects scientific approach, focussing on individual experiences.
-active ppts in research can respond to demand characteristics so study of human thought may not always be possible

Question 15

Evaluation of the emergence of psychology as a science

lack of a paradigm

Answer 15

-Philosopher Thomas Kuhn said that any science must have a paradigm(set of principles that all in the field agree on)
-said psych is not a science because it does not have a paradigm at its core

Question 16

What is the behaviourist theory?

Answer 16

-interested in studying behaviour that can be observed not mental processes like introspection.
-objective and controlled research i.e lab studies
-believes that babies are born ‘tabula rasa’ and we all(even animals) have the same basic processes that govern learning

Question 17

Assumptions of the behaviourist approach

Answer 17

-not concerned with ‘irrelevant’ mental processes of the mind
-John B Watson(1913) rejected introspection due to vague concepts

Question 18

What are the 3 ways of learning?

Answer 18

-learning through consequence(operant conditioning)
-learning through imitation(social learning theory)
-learning through association(classical conditioning)

Question 19

Classical conditioning

Answer 19

-passive process of learning by association
-only a UCS can trigger a UCR(naturally occurs)
-A NS would not trigger UCR
-only in the UCS presence, the NS would be associated to the UCS and would trigger a UCR
-over time, the NS= a CS and would trigger a CR on its own

Question 20

Classical conditioning-
Pavlov(1927)

Answer 20

-dogs could be conditioned to salivate at sound of a bell by repeatedly serving food after the sound.
-gradually, they learned to associate the bell with food and would produce saliva at the sound
-showed that a neutral stimulus can become a learned/conditioned response via association

Question 21

definition of punishment

Answer 21

consequence of behaviour that decreases likelihood of behaviour repeating

Question 22

Operant conditioning

Answer 22

-Skinner(1958) suggested learning is an active process whereby humans and animals can operate on their environment. Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences i.e reinforcement and punishment

Question 23

Reinforcement and punishment

Answer 23

-REINFORCEMENT:
+, receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed(physical or intrinsic i.e good feeling)
-, avoiding/removal of something unpleasant by performing behaviour as encouragement
-PUNISHMENT:
+, receiving an unpleasant consequence after performing a behaviour
-, removal of something pleasant after a behaviour

Question 24

B.F Skinner’s research(1953)

Answer 24

-placed rats in controlled environment(box)where he could manipulate stimuli
-the hungry rat would first accidently knock the lever and receive a food pellet.
-rat would learn if they press the lever they received food.(+ reinforcement)
-rat was subjected to an uncomfortable shock and would knock the lever by accident and turning it off
-rats learned that when the current came on they had to press the lever to remove it.

Question 25

Evaluating the behaviourist approach

well-controlled research

Answer 25

-focused on measurement of observable behaviours within highly controlled lab settings.
-stimulus=response reduces extraneous variables and allow cause and effect to be established i.e skinner demonstrating reinforcement.(reliability)
COUNTERPOINT: oversimplified the learning process + ignored the influence of human thought and complexity of mental processes.

Question 26

Evaluating the behaviourist approach

real-life application

Answer 26

-operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems in institutions and psych wards.
-behaviours are reinforced by tokens(secondary reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards(primary reinforcers)
-has widespread application(external validity)

Question 27

Evaluating the behaviourist approach

Environmental determinism

Answer 27

(view that behaviours are caused by external features of the environment that cannot be controlled)
-behaviourist psychologists believe that behaviour stems from learning by association/consequences and makes idea of free will redundant.
-Skinner suggested everything we do is a sum of reinforcement history
-subjective as as eliminates co-existing internal factors i.e bio factors
-incomplete explanation + limits is usage

Question 28

Evaluating the behaviourist approach

Ethical issues

Answer 28

-Skinner’s rats were kept hungry +underweight in cramped conditions
-viable costs that may outweigh benefits of gaining supporting research
-eliminates replicability in modern-day studies
COUNTERPOINT: procedures like Skinner’s box allowed behaviourists to maintain high degree of control in experiments

Question 29

Assumptions of the social learning theory

Answer 29

Bandura suggested behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of others, especially role models for approval/reward.
-learning occurs directly(conditioned) AND indirectly, combining learning + cognitive theory
-focuses on how mental factors are involved in learning

Question 30

Bandura’s stance on behaviourism

Answer 30

-agreed that behaviour is learned from experience but it suggested that the mind is like a black box, only focussing on stimulus + response

Question 31

Process of having a role model

Answer 31

-MODELLING: person models a behaviour in person/online
-IDENTIFICATION: observer identifies with a likely role model (similarity, status, attractiveness, rewards)
-OBSERVATION: observer notices behaviour that is being modelled.
IMITIATION: observer imitates the behaviour, anticipating reward

Question 32

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 32

-imitation only occurs if the behaviour is seemed to be rewarded, less likely to be imitated if model is punishment
(vicarious rewards= will imitate, vicarious punishment = will avoid)
-observer learns behaviour and consequences for behaviour

Question 33

What is the mediational process?

Answer 33

mental (cognitive) factors that intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new behaviour is acquired or not.

Question 34

Steps of mediational process

Answer 34

ARRM
-Attention(is paid to role model)
-Retention(of the behaviour being observed)
-Reproduction(ability of observer to perform behaviour)
-Motivation(will to perform behaviour depending on reward/punishment)

Question 35

Identification

Answer 35

people are more likely to have a role model that they identify with:
-similar characteristics i.e age, gender, ethnicity
-high status
-model’s behaviour is perceived as attractive/likeable
-model’s behaviour is reinforced through rewards
(seen a lot in children)

Question 36

Study 1: Bandura, Ross and Ross(1961) - Imitating role models

Answer 36

Aim:
to find out if children would show more aggressive behaviour if exposed to an aggressive role model & less aggressive behaviour if exposed to non aggressive. Also to see if sex of RM & child made difference.

Procedure:
-Used equal no. of boys & girls (36) & measured how aggressive they were on 5 point scale made by nursery teacher and experimenter then put in groups based on score
-Children playing in rooms where (1) aggressive model comes in & pushes/punches/swears at bobo doll & hits with mallet, (2) non-aggressive model played quietly alongside kids in the model room
-in the arousal room, children’s toys were taken away for ‘other kids’ to insight agression
-observation room had mixture of agressive/non agressive toys and two way mirror meant experiments kept tally of behaviours
Results:
-G1 kids were aggressive with bobo doll in same way adult RM Ws.
-In G2, & control group, around 70% children had score of 0 for aggression.
-Male RM had bigger influence than female.

Conclusions:
-Behaviour can be learned by imitation even without reinforcement.
-Male RM more influential - cultural expectations.
-Verbal aggression was sex-typed, girls imitated women & boys imitated men. Imitate who they identify with.

Question 37

Study 2: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1963a) - Replication, using filmed RMs

Answer 37

Aim:
-Find out if kids become more aggressive when exposed to aggressive RM in film/less realistic cartoon than live RM
-Test popular idea that filmed aggressions is cathartic. (Makes calm because it vents aggression)
Procedure:
-Same as original with extra condition of where children watched film where female adult model was dressed as cartoon cat following script.
Results:
-Control group carried out half as much aggression.
-No significant difference with live/filmed/cartoon models.

Conclusions:
-Concluded children imitate filmed and live aggression the same way.
-Watching filmed violence is not cathartic & encourages more aggression.

Question 38

Study 3: Bandura (1965) - Replication, with rewards & punishments

Answer 38

Aim:
-To find out if children are more likely to imitate an RM who’s rewarded & less likely to imitate RM being punished.
-See if children are more likely to imitate when offered rewards.

Procedure:
-Basic procedure is same as original.
-Model “Rocky” went through scripted routine of aggressive behaviour.
-In reward condition, he was offered sweets & praised for “superb aggressive performance”.
-In punishment condition, he was called a “big bully” and hit with a rolled up newspaper.
-No consequences condition = nothing happened.
-Children asked to “show what rocky did” & if there was imitative aggression, they were rewarded. positive incentive condition.
Results:
-Model reward condition produced about same imitation from girls & boys as the no consequence condition.
-Model punished produced much less imitation, especially in girls (0.5).
-After positive incentive, imitation increased across all conditions.
Conclusions:
-Children less likely to imitate punished RMs. However, no consequences condition shows behaviour doesn’t have to be punished/rewarded to be imitated.
-When offered incentives, children who watched model be punished show they learnt aggressive behaviour.
-Girls are more restrained with threats of punishment.

Question 39

Evaluation of SLT

cognitive factors

Answer 39

-recognises importance of cognitive factors in learning and looks at how humans+animals store info about the behaviour of others and use it to make judgements on personal behaviours
-“from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are formed”(Bandura 1997)
-comprehensive explanation of human learning due to mediational process
HOWEVER= too little focus* in biological factors i.e observational learning being result of mirror neurons in brain which lead to empathy and imitation.
*(only said bio differences influence learning potential)

Question 40

Evaluating SLT

evidence gathered through lab studies

Answer 40

-Most of Bandura’s ideas developed through observation of young children’s behaviour in lab
-contrived nature with risk of demand characteristics
-main purpose of bobo doll is to strike it so the children may have been acting in a way they thought was expected
-may tell us very little about children learning aggression in everyday life = lacks ecological validity

Question 41

Evaluation of SLT

real world application

Answer 41

-explains cultural differences in behaviour(modelling, imitation and reinforcement) + how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies, even media
-useful in understanding behaviours i.e child’s understanding of gender roles

Question 42

Evaluation of SLT

reciprocal determinism

Answer 42

-Bandura says we are influenced by environment but we have free will in whether we choose to imitate it through our behaviours
-contrasts with the behaviourist approach which denies possibility of free will

Question 43

Basic assumptions of the cognitive approach

Answer 43

-considers how our internal mental processes(thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour
-argues that these processes should be studied scientifically and not neglected, like behaviourists did
-studied by making inferences about what is going on in the mind based on behaviour

Question 44

Define inferences

Answer 44

process by which cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour i.e memory study = results = STM capacity is 7+/- 2

Question 45

The cognitive approach: Ideologies

Answer 45

-Compares the human mind to a computer by suggesting there are similarities in the way we process info.
-Input -> process -> output
(environment, coding/store, response)

Differences:
-humans add meaning to what they input (interpretations).
-computers ALWAYS pay attention.
-direct input through keyboard.

Focused on how internal processes (thoughts) affect behaviour; memory, problem solving, language etc.

Question 46

The role of a schema

Answer 46

-‘packages’ of ideas and info developed through experience(have a schema for EVERYTHING)
-act as mental framework for interpretation of incoming info received by the cognitive system
i.e babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours like grasping
-with age, it becomes more sophisticated + detailed–} form developed mental representations for everything

Question 47

Advantages and disadvantages of schema

Answer 47

:) -enable us to process LOTS of info quickly
-mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
:( -develop stereotypes(assumptions based on what we know abt characteristic)
-may also distort interpretations of sensory info leading to perceptual errors i.e unrealiable EWTs

Question 48

Bugelski & Alampay(1962):
The Rat Man

Answer 48

-2 groups of ppts were shown sequence of pictures and asked to describe what they saw
-when shown ambiguous ‘rat man’, group who saw sequence of animals were more likely to say rat and group who saw sequence of faces were more likely to say man

Question 49

Theoretical and computer models

Answer 49

both help psychologists understand internal mental processes
-theoretical = abstract i.e WMM/MSM(info processing approach: fluid, based on current research and based on how computer functions
-computer = actually programming computer to imitate human mind and see if certain instructions produce a similar output. proved useful in development of ‘thinking machines’ or AI

Question 50

The emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 50

• scientific study of the structure of the brain + how it affects mental processes
• mapping specific areas of the brain to cog functions
  -1860s, Paul Broca identified how damage to frontal lobe could permanently damage speech production(Broca’s area)
  -last 25 years, brain imaging techniques i.e EEG(when brain activity occurs)&FMRI(where activity is) helps scientists systematically observe and describe neurological basis of mental processes
  i.e Tulving researching episodic + semantic memory, Buckner and Peterson(1996) showed types of LTM may be located on different sides of prefrontal cortex
  -established neurological basis of mental disorders i.e parahippocampal gyrus(role in unpleasant emotions) + OCD
  -recent usage of computer modles that are designed to ‘read the brain’ –} mapping techniques i.e ‘brain finger painting’
  -future application could be analysing brainwaves of EWs to see if they’re lying

Question 51

Evaluating the cognitive approach

objective scientific methods

Answer 51

-highly controlled + rigorous so researchers can infer cog processes
i.e lab studies to produce reliable, objective data
-emergence of cog neuroscience incorporates field of biology to enhance scientific basis and make it CREDIBLE
HOWEVER:
-relies on inferences rather than direct observation leading to abstract + theoretical nature
-research often use artificial stimuli i.e world lists which may not represent everyday experience(low external validity)

Question 52

Evaluating the cognitive approach

practical, real world application

Answer 52

-has been applied to wide range of practical + theoretical contexts i.e contributed to AI and development of ‘thinking machines’ –} can revolutionise future life
-cog principles have been applied to treatment of depression and improved reliability of EWTs

Question 53

Evaluating the cognitive approach

machine reductionism

Answer 53

-despite similarities between human mind and ‘thinking machines’ like computers(input+output, central processor, storage systems), the analogy is widely criticised
-ignores influence of human emotion and motivation on cog system i.e ability to process info
-research to back up human memory being affected by emotional factors i.e affect of anxiety on EWTs
may weaken validity of approach

Question 54

Evaluating the cognitive approach

soft determinsm

Answer 54

The cognitive approach is founded in soft determinants (the view that human behaviour can be determined by internal & external factors but we can also exert free will).
-The hard determinism view says all behaviour is determined by factors other than will (genes & conditioning).

Question 55

Define the biological approach

Answer 55

perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body i.e genetic inheritance and neural function

Question 56

Assumptions of the biological approach

Answer 56

-everything psychological is at first biological
-must look at biological structures and processes in the body to understand behaviour
-mind lives inside the brains: thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a physical basis
-Can study this by; lab experiments (animals), brain scanning techs, case studies of brain damaged people & twin studies.

Question 57

Difference between the biological approach and the cognitive approach

Answer 57

cognitive views mental processes of the mind as separate from the physical brain while as biological links them

Question 58

The biological approach: The genetic basis of behaviour

Answer 58

-believe that psychological traits are inherited i.e intelligence, mental disorders, behaviour, just like 80% of genetic material
-twin studies used to test this by analysing concordance rates(extent to which twins share same characteristic) 0-1, 0 is no concordance & 1 is perfect concordance.
-If a characteristic (musical ability) is genetic, we’d expect all identical (monozygotic) twins to be concordant.
-Whereas the same wouldn’t be true for non identical (dizygotic) twins who share about 50% of the same genes.
-In both cases, the environment is assumed to be constant.

Question 59

Genotype and phenotype

Answer 59

genotype: actual genes you inherit from parents.
phenotype: combination of genes and environment (inheritance & presentation).

Question 60

What is neurochemistry?

Answer 60

Relating to the actions of chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning

Question 61

Influence of neurochemistry on behaviour: Neurotransmitters

Answer 61

-make messages travel through our nervous system–} carry chemical signals from from one neuron to the next target cell
-imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain has been implicated as a possible cause of mental disorder
i.e low level of serotonin in OCD/overproduction of dopamine in schizophrenia

Question 62

Influence of biological structures on behaviour

Answer 62

neurons and nervous system: -assume behaviours and experiences are caused by activity in nervous system
-system is a specialised network of cells in the body & primary communication system:
-> collect, process & respond.
-> coordinate working of diff organs & cells.

The brain:
-2 hemispheres (left & right) - 4 loves (occipital, frontal, parietal, temporal).
-cerebral cortex (85% of the brain; loads of neurones).

Hormones:
-chemicals released into bloodstream through endocrine system.
-glands produce hormones.
-CNS says hormones required & they are secreted into blood & travel to target cells.
-causes psychological response.

Question 63

Supporting research for Hormones

Answer 63

Carre et al (2006) studied Canadian ice hockey team over course of season.
Found evidence of a surge in levels of testosterone whenever team played in their home stadium, suggesting hormone energised players to defend home territory.

Question 64

Influence of evolution of behaviour

Answer 64

Evolution:
-process by which living organisms are believed to have developed from earlier forms during trye history of the earth.
-adaptation: how inherited characteristics in organisms change from gen to gen.
-evolutionary basis for survival.

Natural selection:
-the way some characteristics may aid survival.
-organisms that display characteristics that don’t aid survival don’t get to reproduce.
-these bad genes don’t get passed on & will die out.
-survival of the fittest.

Sexual selection:
-a characteristic that makes an individual more attractive to mate with.
-made competition: males compete with each other for female.
-female choice: males try impress & she chooses to mate.

Question 65

Supporting research for sexual selection

Answer 65

Buss (1989) found across 37 cultures, women tend to desire resources & men desire physical attraction.

Question 66

Evaluating the biological approach: real world application

Answer 66

-increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with the use of psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders
i.e antidepressants increase levels of serotonin in the brain, which is associated with reduction of depressive symptoms
-means that people with depression may be able to better manage condition and everyday life rather than constant clinical care
HOWEVER:
antidepressants don’t work for everyone = Ciprani et al (2018) compared 21 antidepressants & found wide variations in effectiveness. Although most were more effective than placebos, researched concluded the effects were ‘’mainly modest”.
-Challenges value of approach as it suggests brain chem alone can’t account for all cases of (depression)

Question 67

Evaluating the biological approach
Scientific methods

Answer 67

-range of highly objective and precise methods to investigate genetic + biological basis of behaviour
i.e scanning techniques like fMRIs and EEGs
-more possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes free of bias due to tech advances
OBJECTIVE AND RELIABLE DATA

Question 68

Evaluating the biological approach
Biological determinism

Answer 68

-sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic out of our control BUT genotype expression is shown to be affected by environment(even identical twins aren’t identical in all looks and thought)
-problematic in excusing behaviours like crime
-too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment

Question 69

Evaluating the biological approach
Natural selection

Answer 69

-Critics of Darwin i.e Karl Popper claim it’s impossible to falsify theory of natural selection as evolution can only be deduced, not proven
HOWEVER others claim that the basic principles are supported by fossil records

Question 70

Assumptions of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 70

-all behaviour can be explained in terms of the inner conflicts of the mind
Freud believed 2 main things:
-Childhood has a very big impact on our later life and can influence personality, relationships + mental health
-There is an unconscious part of our mind which contains thoughts, feelings, memories and desires we cannot access

Question 71

The role of the unconscious

Answer 71

-conscious(thoughts, perceptions) are the ‘tip of the iceberg’
-under the surface is the sub/preconscious that stores memories + stored knowledge not in conscious awareness
-most of our mind is made of the unconscious, storing biological drives and instincts that impact behaviour i.e Eros(libido) = life instinct, manifesting as sexuality. Thanatos = death instinct, manifesting as aggression and destructiveness.
Also contains repressed memories that are threatening/disturbing

Question 72

Freudian slips

Answer 72

aka parapraxes
-gives us a glimpse into our unconscious & repressed feelings come out as “misspoken words”.
-tells about ‘hidden’ parts of our mind

Question 73

Dreams

Answer 73

Freud said that “dreams are the royal road to the unconscious”:
-believed they were the window/direct view to it.
-believed that things in our unconscious can cause issues if not explained.
-would analyse his patients dreams to interpret their unconscious.
manifest content: what was in the dream.
latent content: what was symbolised/represented in the unconscious.
Believed ‘unacceptable’ thought’s were hidden in unconscious as symbols in dreams, (ie. sex).

Question 74

The tripartite model: Id, Ego, and Superego

Answer 74

Id:
-means ‘it’ and plays ‘devil’ role
-primitive part of our personality = no sense of right and wrong, psychic & sexualised energy / libido
-PLEASURE principle = selfish, ensuring needs are gratified
-present at birth(babies are ‘bundles of Id’)
-fully unconscious(based on drives and instincts)

Ego:-“I”.
-conscious & rational.
-develops around 18 months.
-sometimes allows id but aware you don’t always get what you want.
-REALITY principle.
-seeks to satisfy both id & superego via defence mechanisms
-“ego-strength” is how well ego cities with these forces (chocolate cake).

Superego:
-MORALITY principle.
-develops around 3-5 years(end of the phallic stage)
-strives for perfection (learns from parents, especially same gender parent).
-only senses right & wrong.
-guilt

Question 75

The psychodynamic approach: Tripartite model - imbalances

Answer 75

-one may dominate the other 2.
-this affects personality.
E.g. driven by the id: more selfish, impulsive & reckless.
E.g. driven by the superego: more moral, perfectionist, scared, judgmental.

Question 76

Definition + role of defence mechanisms

Answer 76

-unconscious strategies that the Ego uses to manage the conflict between the Id + Super ego
Role:
-protect conscious mind by preventing us from experiencing something you’ll find unpleasant / traumatic.
-> pushing a thought out of conscious.
-> applying thought to someone or something else.

Question 77

How is anxiety linked to defence mechanisms?

Answer 77

-ego either experiences anxiety/anticipates it so activates defence mechanism
-triggered if the ego feels it will feel to meet pleasure demands of id/moral demands of superego

Question 78

Defence mechanisms

Answer 78

Repression (forgetting):
-pushing unwanted memories, truths, feelings & emotions into unconscious mind.
Denial:
-refusal to accept truth.
-conscious process
Displacement:
-choosing a substitute object to express feeling because it cannot be expressed to the real target
-can also have displacement activity(procrastination)
Projection:
-saying that the unacceptable thoughts are someone else’s
Regression:
mind regresses to previous stage of life to cope
Reaction formation:
consciously feeling/thinking opposite of what you unconsciously feel leading to opposite behaviour

Question 79

Evaluating defence mechanisms

Answer 79

-lack of testability as it is an unconscious process so can’t be directly studied
-only inferred from behaviour or reported thoughts/experiences
-Intuitive appeal = most people can appreciate idea of denial, repression, displacement

Question 80

What are the psychosexual stages?

Answer 80

-Freud believed the first first few years of a child’s life were vital for personality and moral development
-each stage is marked by a different conflict that must be resolved in order to progress to the next stage
-unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries certain behaviours/conflicts associated with that stage
-also believe in sexual energy or libido that is present from birth—> in each stage the focus is on one part of the body where most pleasure is taken from

Question 81

Oral stage

Answer 81

-birth to 18 months
-mouth is the focus of pleasure, mother’s breast can be the object of desire
-newborns get instant pleasure from feeding + sucking their thumb
-Id is in control
-if a baby is weaned too soon= pessimistic and sarcastic
-if a baby is weaned too late= needy, admiring of others, gullible
-oral fixation: smoking, biting nails, overly chatty etc

Question 82

Anal stage

Answer 82

-1 to 3 years when potty training is completed
-focus of pleasure is the anus
-child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
-parents may be too strict/lenient on potty training= causes fixation
fixation unresolved:
-Anal retentive= (hard potty train) perfectionist, obsessive
-Anal expulsive= (easy potty train) thoughtless, messy

Question 83

Phallic stage

Answer 83

-3 to 6 years
-focus of pleasure and sexual energy is the genitals
-Boys experience the oedipus complex and the electra complex
-starts developing super ego
-if fixated at this stage—> phallic character: self assured, reckless, narcissistic
-happens if they do not overcome the oedipus/electra complex

Question 84

Oedipus + Electra complex

Answer 84

Oedipus complex-FREUD:
-when a boy in the phallic stage has sexual feelings towards their mother + a resentment for their father unconsciously in the Id, but overcome this and instead look up to the father and want to be like them(in order to get someone like their mother)
Electra complex-JUNG:
-girls experience penis envy, upset with mother for castrating her, replaces her desire for a penis with a desire for a baby

Question 85

Latency period

Answer 85

-6 years to puberty
-no focus on sexual drive
-earlier conflicts are repressed
-children from same sex friendship
-focus on school + free time
-fixations and issues from other stages are repressed

Question 86

Genital stage

Answer 86

-starts at puberty
-sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
-libido focuses on the genitals
-focuses on friendships and relationships
-fixation: struggle to build any friendships/relationships

Question 87

Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach:
real world application

Answer 87

-introduced the idea of psychotherapy
-psychoanalysis attempted to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically
-new therapy employee a range or techniques to access the unconscious i.e dream analysis to help bring repressed emotions to conscious mind and deal with them
-forerunner to many modern day ‘talking therapies’ such as counselling
HOWEVER
therapy is only successful for patients with mild neuroses, and is regarded inappropriate for more serious mental disorders i.e schizophrenia= cannot articulate thoughts as required in psychonalysis

Question 88

Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach: ability to explain human behaviour

Answer 88

-regardless of bizarre, controversial theories, it had a huge influence on psychology and contemporary thought
-remained dominant force in psychology for the first half of 20th century and used to explain phenomena i.e personality development, abnormal behaviour + gender
-significant jn drawing attention to the connection between experiences in childhood, like parental relationships

Question 89

Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach: untestable concepts

Answer 89

-philosopher Karl Popper argued that if doesn’t meet the scientific criteria of falsification—> not open to empirical testing and many concepts i.e personality types occur in the unconscious
-ideas were based on the subjective study of individuals i.e Little Hans which makes it difficult to make universal claims about behaviour
-suggests approach is a pseudoscience

Question 90

Evaluating the psychodynamic approach: psychic determinism

Answer 90

-much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood
-believed nothing was an accident and even even the ‘slip of a tongue’ is driven by unconscious forces and has deep meaning
-critics claim this as extreme because it dismisses free will

Question 91

Little Hans and the Oedipus complex case study

Answer 91

-Hans was a 5 year old boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street
-Freud suggested that his phobia was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred into horses
-horses were symbolic of his real unconscious fear of castration during the oedipus complex

Question 92

Assumptions of the humanistic approach

Answer 92

-first developed by Maslow and Rogers in the 1950s
focuses on:
-the conscious experience rather than behaviour
-on personal responsibility and free will rather than determinism
-discussion of experience rather than experimental method

Question 93

What is free will?

Answer 93

-notion that humans can make choices and are not fully determined by internal(biological, hormones, thought processes) or external(social pressure, consequences, association) forces
-reject more scientific models of behaviour and focus on the study of subjective experience(person centred)

Question 94

Maslow’s theory (1948)

Answer 94

-interested in finding out what motivates people, so he created the hierarchy of needs
(must satisfy deficiency needs in order to achieve primary goal of self actualisation)
-long term deficiency can encourage mental health disorders
-‘Peak experiences’= moments of achievements where needs were met
-negative life experiences can cause fluctuation between levels

Question 95

Hierarchy of needs

Answer 95

1) Physiological needs i.e craving food/water
2) Need for safety i.e security of body, resources
3) Need for love&belonging i.e family, reciprocal relationships
4) Need for esteem i.e confidence, self belief, dignity
5) Self actualisation= reaching full potential through personal growth(developing and changing as a person)
May be physiological barriers preventing full potential to be reached

Question 96

What did Maslow find about people who reached self actualisation?

Answer 96

-they shared certain characteristics of creativity, acceptance of others and an accurate perception of the world around them

Question 97

The self

Answer 97

-refers to the how we see ourselves as a person
2 basic needs:
1) positive regard from others
2) self worth feeling
-self worth develops in childhood due to parent child interactions and further develops
-Rogers believed that how self worth is important in determining physiological help

Question 98

Congruence

Answer 98

-When there’s similarity between a persons ideal self & how they perceive themselves to be in real life.
-too big a gap= incongruence + self actualisation impossible due to negative self worth
-Individual employ defence mechanisms to feel less threatened by inconsistencies between them + their ideal

Question 99

Conditions of worth(1959)

Answer 99

Rogers believed the harder you try to help process of SA, you hinder it.
positive regard: =unconditional regard is when you’re accepted for who you are.
-conditional positive regard (CPR) is when you’re accepted if you do what others want you to do.
-CPR leads to conditions of worth= these are conditions that a person perceived as significant places upon them.
-A person may experience a sense of self acceptance only if they meet expectations others have set.

Question 100

Counselling psychology

Answer 100

“each client has within him the vast resources for self-understanding.. and self-directing behaviour” “It is the client that knows what hurts” -Carl Rogers
-concerned with exploring where emotions come from rather than ‘fixing’
-clients not patients(they are the expert)
-therapist is non directive and should provide: genuineness, empathy, and unconditional positive regard
-aim is to increase self worth, reduce levels of incongruence and help them be fully functioning

Question 101

Application of counselling psychology

Answer 101

-Roger’s work introduced a variety of counselling techniques for clinical settings AND other institutions i.e education
-forward looking and effect BUT best for ‘mild’ psychological conditions

Question 102

Evaluating the humanistic approach

Not reductionist/holism :)

Answer 102

-Rejects attempts to break up behaviour & experience into smaller components.
-In contrast to the other theories, humanistic psychologists advocate holism (idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person).
-more validity by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real world context.
HOWEVER
reductionist approaches may be more scientific. & that’s because the ideal of science is the experiment. (IVs & DVs).
Relatively few concepts can be broken down to single variable & measured.
Means humanistic psychology is sort on empirical evidence to support its claims.

Question 103

Evaluating the Humanistic approach

Optimistic :)

Answer 103

-bring person into psychology & promotes positive image of the human condition.
-Freud saw humans as “prisoners of their past” & claimed we all existed between “common unhappiness & absolute despair.”
-in contrast, humanistic psychologists see all people as basically good, free to work towards achievement of their potential & in control.
-refreshing & optimistic alternative to other approaches.

Question 104

Evaluating the Humanistic approach

Cultural bias :(

Answer 104

-many ideas that are central to approach (individual freedom, autonomy, personal growth) would be more associated with countries that have more individualist tendencies (US) than collectivist tendencies.
-collectivist tendency cultures emphasis needs of the group & interdependence.
-the ideals of humanistic psychology wouldn’t be important to them.
-Possible that approach isn’t universal & a product of cultural context in which it was developed.

Question 105

Evaluating the Humanistic approach

limited application in psychology

Answer 105

-approach has been described as a loose set of abstract ideas.
-However, Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques & Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation (esp in the workplace).

Question 106

Comparing approaches

Answer 106

S scientific
A application (treatments)
R reductionism vs holism
D determinism vs free will
I idiographic vs nomothetic(individual differences vs general findings)
N nature vs nurture
E extrapolation (animals in research)

Question 107

Scientific methods

Answer 107

Biological- one of the most scientific in psych i.e measurement of biochemicals
Behaviourist- observable characteristics are scientific(more objective)
Cognitive- well controlled lab studies, not directly observed
SLT- less scientific, more open to bias and not directly observable
Psychodynamic- subjective, interpretive methods i.e dream analysis
Humanistic- see no point in scientific study, humans are unique

Question 108

Application therapies

Answer 108

Biological- drug therapy
Behaviourism- token economy programmes, flooding(undoing classical conditioning)
Cognitive- CBT
SLT- peer mentors
Psychodynamic- psychoanalysis
Humanistic- client centred therapy

Question 109

Reductionism v Holism

Answer 109

Biological- Reductionist (explains behaviour as genetic/physiological/ biochemical)
Behaviourism- Experimental reductionism(stimulus, response, experimental design)
Cognitive- Experimental reductionism(‘decoupling’, isolates variables)
Psychodynamic- more Holistic(all elements of behaviour, less scientific)
Humanistic- Holistic(does not reduce behaviour to specific elements)

Question 110

Determinism v Free will

Answer 110

Biological- Determinist
Behaviourism- Determinist
Cognitive- soft Determinist
SLT- soft Determinist
Psychodynamic-Determinist
Humanistic- Free will

Question 111

Idiographic v Nomothetic

Answer 111

(I= small case studies/sample groups, quali differences/ N= experiments/large samples, quanti data)
Biological- Nomo(general laws)
Behaviourist- Nomo(quant data laws about human behaviours)
Cognitive- nomo(use of models make general laws)
SLT- Nomo(general laws of human behaviour)
Psychodynamic- Idio(qualitative case studies)
Humanistic- Idio(qualitative differences between individuals)

Question 112

Nature v Nurture

Answer 112

Biological- Nature(behaviour passed on through genes BUT acknowledges phenotype)
Behaviourism- Nurture(environment forms behaviour)
Cognitive- more nurture(looks at innate mechanisms BUT processing is based on experience)
SLT- Nurture(behaviour learned from role models)
Psychodynamic- Neither(Id shows innate drives but personality affected by childhood)
Humanistic- Both(interaction not generalised)

Question 113

Extrapolation

Answer 113

Biological- Yes= community used animals because psychologically similar
Behaviourism- Yes= used animals testing because leading mechanisms are the same
Cognitive- No= human mental processes are too different
SLT- No= believed animals are too different
Psychodynamic- No= unconscious mind is impossible to test on animals
Humanistic- No= unscientific measuring for humans is impossible