3.1.1 Social Influence

Question 1

what is conformity
AO1

Answer 1

When you change your behaviour or beliefs to fit in with majority

Question 2

Kelman(1958): 3 types of conformity
AO2

Answer 2

compliance: going along with majority in public but privately disagreeing, to gain approval. temporary change in expressed views, no change in beliefs
identification: take on views of majority and conforms to social role. no full change in beliefs
internalisation: agrees with majority publicly and have privately accepted views. long lasting, full change in beliefs

Question 3

Deutsch and Gerard(1955): two process theory

Answer 3

NSI: following social norms of a group to feel socially rewarded rather than rejected. temporary, emotional process(compliance). more when stressed, need for social support.
ISI: conforming due to uncertainty, they believe group is right. permanent, cognitive process(internalisation)

Question 4

Schultz(2008): research support for NSI
AO3

Answer 4

Strength
Schultz(2008)
-in experimental condition door hanger informed guests, in 132 different hotels, the benefits of reusing towels and said 75% re use them
-reduce in need of hand towels by 25% in comparison to control group
-shows the effects of NSI in real life

Question 5

Lucas(2006) et al: research support for ISI
AO3

Answer 5

found that ppts were more likely to conform to wrong answers when maths questions were difficult(when easy they relied on themselves), mostly by poor ability ppl.
-shows how ppl conform in ambiguous situations
HOWEVER
-unclear whether it is NSI or ISI at work, asch(1955) found dissenters reduce both so it is hard to differentiate in real life situations, NSI= provided social support ISI= alternative source of social info

Question 6

Asch(1951): baseline study and findings
AO2

Answer 6

STUDY:
* 123 American male students in 18 trials
* tested with group of 7 confederates on matching comparison line length to target line length
* confederates answered correctly at first then wrong later on(wrong in 12 trials)
FINDINGS: 32% of ppts conformed generally
75% at least once
5% every time
1% when there were no confederates, incorrect answer
(then investigated variables that might increase/decrease conformity)
* during interviews, ppts said the conformed to avoid disapproval(NSI)

Question 7

Asch’s variations: group size

Answer 7

-varied from 1 confederate to 15
FINDINGS: curvilinear relationship between variables=one person was 3% and with 3 it was 32% but it stayed that after increase in confederates
-people are sensitive to other’s views, only takes a small increase in confederates to change views

Question 8

Asch’s variations: unanimity

Answer 8

introduction of correct/dissenting confederate
FINDINGS: -one correct, conformity dropped by a quarter(5%)
-one dissenting, conformity dropped to 9%

Question 9

Asch’s variations: task difficulty

Answer 9

made line judging difficult as lengths were similar
FINDINGS: increase in conformity due to ISI
(supported by Lucas 2006)

Question 10

Asch Evaluation: artificial task

Answer 10

-knowledge of the study could lead to demand characteristics
-lacks ecological validity
EVIDENCE: Mori and Arai(2010) replicated with 104 ppts, men and women, with one ppt having filtered glasses that made them see a different line length= unnoticeable conformity to majority by men

Question 11

Asch Evaluation: lacks historical validity

Answer 11

-Perrin and Spencer(1980) suggest it was a child of its time
-with same method, only one out of 396 trials conformed
HOWEVER could be because STEM students were more confident

Question 12

Asch Evaluation: Androcentric& Individualistic

Answer 12

-Neto(1995) found that women conformed more due to concern of social relations.(beta bias)
-Smith and Harris Bond conducted worldwide research (1957-85) and found collectivist cultures conformed more.

Question 13

Asch Evaluation: Highly replicable

Answer 13

-lab= specific procedure, high degree of control
-perrin and spencer could replicate

Question 14

Conformity to social roles

Answer 14

-the ‘parts’ played by people in society i.e mother, teacher, guard

Question 15

Outline Zimbardo’s procedure(1973)
A01

Answer 15

AIM: to understand whether it is personalities that cause conformity or the social role they are assigned
-set up mock prison at basement of stanford university with 21 students
-assigned roles of guard or prisoner
-prisoners arrested, strip searched and given uniforms and numbers
-guards given wooden clubs and shades (de individuation= more likely to conform)

Question 16

Findings of Stanford prison experiment

Answer 16

prisoners: rebelled early on, hunger strike, ripping uniform, shouting at guards but became depressed and even disturbed(ended after 6 days instead of 14)
guards: dehumanised prisoners, used fire extinguishers, disturbed their sleep, divide and conquer techniques

Question 17

conclusion of Stanford study

Answer 17

-social roles have strong influence on behaviour
-de individuation makes it easier to behave in untoward manner
-cognitive dissonance: distancing from actions

Question 18

Evaluation of Zimbardo: control

Answer 18

Participants were randomly assigned roles
Emotionally stable individuals were chosen
This meant they could rule out individual differences as a reason
Can say findings to due to roles
Degree of controlled increased internal validity

Question 19

Evaluation of Zimbardo: lack of realism

Answer 19

Was not representative of a real prison
-Bahnhazizi and Movahedi argued the ppts were play acting rather than conforming to a role
One the guards claimed to be basing his role on a character from cool hand Luke
Suggests findings of SPE tells us little about conformity to social roles in actual prison
CP

McDermott argues ppt did behave as if it was real. 90% of the conversations that were recorded were about the prison
Suggests SPE did replicate social roles of prisoners and guards in real prison so high internal validity

Question 20

Evaluation of Zimbardo

Androcentrism

Answer 20

Limitation
Zimbardo sample size was small and his ppts where American middle class men
Due to the sampling issues it would be hard to generalise findings to women
This is an example of beta bias, as how men acted in a study was generalised to women
Suggests Zimbardos findings tell us little about conformity of social roles in women

Question 21

Evaluation of Zimbardo

Ethics

Answer 21

-issue due to zimbardo’s dual role as super intendant in his study
-conversation between him and a ppt asking to withdraw was more like a prisoner asking to be released and a super intendant worried about his prison.
-low reliability as it cannot be fully replicated

Question 22

Evaluation of zimbardo
lack of research support

Answer 22

-Reicher and Haslam(2006) randomly assigned 15 men to guard/prisoner roles.
-prisoners took control of the mock prison and the guards became subject to disobedience
-Tajfel(1981) social identity theory= prisoners identified themselves as an ‘in group’ and worked together whereas guards failed to form a cohesive group.
CP: study was filmed for BBC, so demand characteristics may have come into play.

Question 23

what is obedience?

Answer 23

-a form of social influence where an individual complies to an authority figure who has the power to punish them

Question 24

Outline Milgram’s aim and procedure

Answer 24

-study the extent of obedience on authority(inspired by why Germans were obedient to Hitler)
-recruited 40 male ppts between 20-50 through newspaper ads for a study of the effects of punishment on learning.
-assigned teacher role through rigged draw and confederate ‘Mr Wallace’ assigned learner
-teacher told to administer increasing shocks(fake) from 15 to 450v for every wrong answer
-given 4 prods that increased in assertiveness.

Question 25

Milgram’s findings and conclusion

Answer 25

-all ppts went to 300v and 65% continued to 450v
-ppts debriefed and 84% were happy to take part according to questionnaire
-concluded that ordinary people are obedient to individuals with legit authority figures

Question 26

Evaluation of Milgram’s study
Good external validity

Answer 26

-supporting research from Hoffling(1966), where an unknown doctor ordered 22 nurses to give over the max dose of an unknown drug and then left
- 21/22 nurses obeyed
-relationship between authority figure and ppts reflects wider relationships(external validity)
CP: in a variation with a known drug, nobody obeyed

Question 27

Evaluation of Milgram’s study
ethical issues

Answer 27

ppts not protected from harm:
signs of stress included trembling, biting nails, sweating
- 3 ppts had full-blown uncontrollable seizures, one so bad that the experiment had to be stopped
-impacts replicability as future ppts must be protected.
-ppts pressured by destructive authority through ‘prods’
CP: but Milgram did debrief ppts and 84% glad to have participated in a follow up questionnaire

Question 28

Evaluation of Milgrams study

Lab study strength

Answer 28

-Used a standardised procedure which allows it to be repeated by other researchers, most replication support the findings for example sheridan and king (1922) who found 100% of women and 52% of men gave real shocks to puppies
- because there is high control of variable a casual relationship can be established
- increases reliability of findings

Question 29

Evaluation of Milgrams study

Andocentrism

Answer 29

Milgrams sample size was men
Due to the sampling issues it would be hard to generalise findings to women
For example in an Australian study with a female learner and ppts obedience levels were 16%.
This is an example of beta bias, as how men acted in a study was generalised to women
Suggests Milgarms findings tell us little about obedience in women.
-lacks generalisability

Question 30

How did situational variables affect the results of Milgrams study

Location

Answer 30

Orignal experiment conducted at Yale, a prestigious university.
- high status of the university gave the study credibility making ppts more likely to obey
when study was in run down offices obedience dropped to 47.5%.
-suggests that status of location affects obedience

Question 31

How did situational variables affect the results of Milgram’s study

Proximity

Answer 31

-Touch proximity obedience rate fell to 30%
-Teacher and learner in same room obedience fell to 40%
-due to guilt, more responsibility for inflicting pain

Question 32

How did situational variables affect the results of Milgrams study

Uniform

Answer 32

-when experimenter wore everyday clothes and was a member of the public obedience was 20%.
-takes away legitimacy of the authority figure= no longer visually important as the symbol of authority is gone.

Question 33

Evaluation of Milgrams situational variables

Cross culture replications

Answer 33

-similar results when carried out in different cultures and genders:
-Milgram USA with women-65%
-Mantell Germany-85%
-Barley+Mcguinness UK-50%
HOWEVER
-smith and bond criticised the ethnocentric replications as results are not applicable to non western countries with collectivist culture rather than individualistic

Question 34

Evaluation of Milgrams situational variables

Low internal validity

Answer 34

Orne and Holland

• ppts may have noticed that this was fake when an experimenter with different clothes walked in
• suggests that ppts saw through deception
• may have play acted

Question 35

Evaluation of Milgrams situational variables

Research support

Answer 35

Bickman(1974)
In a field experiment in the streets of new york city
-Three confederates dressed as milkman, in a suit, security guards uniform asked people to perform tasks such as picking something up
-found that people obeyed the security guard twice as likely than the guy in a suit
-shows how uniform can affect levels of obedience

Question 36

Evaluation of Milgrams situational variables
Obedience alibi

Answer 36

Mandel(1998) says that situational variables excuses evil behaviour or offer an alibi and is offensive to survivors of the holocaust

Question 37

what are social psychological factors?

Answer 37

-influences of others and the social hierarchy on an individual’s behaviour as opposed to external factors
-used by milgram as alternative explanation for obedience.

Question 38

What is the agentic state?

Answer 38

-obedience to destructive authority occurs when a person does not take responsibility for themselves and is acting as an ‘agent’ for an authority figure.
-agent will feel high moral strain but powerless and forced to obey

Question 39

Where did the ‘agentic state’ idea originate from?

Answer 39

-Milgram wanted to study why Eichmann had used the defence of ‘just following orders’ when on trial for holocaust war crimes

Question 40

What is the autonomous state?

Answer 40

-independent and free to behave according to own principles and take responsibility for their actions.

Question 41

What is the agentic shift?

Answer 41

• the changing from autonomous to agentic due to the presence of an authority figure who is higher in the social hierarchy.

Question 42

Why do individuals remain in the agentic state?

Answer 42

• binding factors(ways to shift the blame) to reduce moral strain.
  -ppts in milgram’s study shifted blame to learner’s foolishness or denied the damage.

Question 43

What is meant by legitimacy of authority figure?

Answer 43

-more likely to obey people who we perceive as having authority
-legitimised by their position in social hierarchy
-authority can be destructive

Question 44

KELMAN AND HAMILTON(1989) 3 factors of obedience

Answer 44

-legitimacy of the system: source of authority i.e govt
-legitimacy of authority within the system: individual’s position in the system
-legitimacy of demands or orders given: legitimate area for authority figure i.e teacher in school.

Question 45

Evaluation of social-psychological factors(legitimacy of authority figures)

research support

Answer 45

-Blass and Schmidt(2001) showed video of milgram’s study to students and they identified the ‘experimenter’ as responsible for harm to the learner as he was an expert so he had the legitimate authority
-strength= gives theory external validity

Question 46

Evaluation of social-psychological factors
Ethics

Answer 46

-not applicable in the 21st century as it undermines inhumane decisions
-Abu Ghraib prison 2003/4:
US military personnel tortured Iraqi prisoners in Baghdad through sexual abuse, physical assault and murder.
Ringleader of abuse, Charles Graner maintains belief he was following orders from military intelligence.
-reasoning with these actions= not upholding protection from harm.

Question 47

Evaluation of social-psychological factors(legitimacy of authority figures)
Cross-culture research

Answer 47

-useful account of cultural differences in obedience.
-Kilham and Mann(1974) replicated Milgram’s study and found 16% of Australians fully obeyed
-Mantell(1971) found 85% of Germans fully obeyed
-increases reliability

Question 48

Evaluation of social-psychological factors(Agentic state)
not always applicable

Answer 48

-Mandel(1998) described an incident involving the German Reserve Police Battilion 101 where men obeyed orders to shoot civilians despite the fact that they did not have direct orders to do so (they were told they could be assigned to other duties if they preferred.) Their behaviour suggests that they acted individually and did not engage in an agentic shift

Question 49

Evaluation of social-psychological factors(Agentic state)

Answer 49

Milgram’s studies support the agentic state. Participants were told that the experimenter would take the blame for any harm suffered by the participants, and would continue with the experiment.
-all ppts went to 300v and 65% went full way
Shows that once an individual is relieved of responsibility of consequence, they are more likely to obey.

Question 50

what are dispositional characteristics?

Answer 50

-internal characteristics within an individual that make them more/less likely to follow orders.

Question 51

Why was Adorno interested in obedience?
(his aim)

Answer 51

-wanted to understand anti-Semitism during the Holocaust.

Question 52

Outline Adorno’s(1950) procedure

Answer 52

-ppts were 2000 white male middle class Americans
-investigated their unconscious racial attitudes using different scales i.e the F-scale(potential for fascism)
-F-scale included statements like ‘obedience and respect for authority are two of the most important virtues a child should learn’

Question 53

What were Adorno’s findings and conclusion

Answer 53

-people who scored highly on the F-scale identified with strong people and were intolerant of the ‘weak’
-cognitive style with rigid stereotypes and correlation with prejudice
-Concluded that people with AP’s have
1) extreme respect for authority
2)show contempt to those with an ‘inferior’ social status
3)no ‘grey areas’ and are uncomfortable with uncertainty
4) believe in need for strong leader to reinforce traditional values.

Question 54

What are the origins of an AP?

Answer 54

-psychodynamic explanation:
stems from harsh parenting i.e high standards, conditional love, absolute loyalty etc
-creates hostility and resentment which gets displaced onto others they see as weaker(scapegoating)

Question 55

Evaluation of AP

supporting research

Answer 55

-Elms and Milgram(1966) repeated Milgram’s study with 20 obedient ppts(obeyed to 450v) and disobedient ppts(refused to continue) and asked them to complete F-scale
obedient ppts scored higher on the F-scale
-AP’s more likely to obey authority
CP: just a correlation between two DVs and does not take into account other factors(reduces internal validity)

Question 56

Evaluation of AP

social identity theory

Answer 56

-explains obedience better
-unlikely that all Nazi’s had the same AP, more realistic to suggest they were part of a strong ‘in’ group and scapegoated Jews as the ‘out’ group
-low external validity

Question 57

Evaluation of AP

‘a comedy of Methodological errors’

Answer 57

-Greenstein(1969) proposed that if ppts ticked the same line of boxes they would score highly. just measures tendency to agree.
-researchers were aware of ppts’ F-scale result during interview so chance of leading questions)
-Acquiescence bias(the tendency for ppts to agree with research statements, without the action being a true reflection of them)

Question 58

Evaluation of AP

political bias

Answer 58

-Christie and Jahoda(1954)
argued that the AP focuses on right-wing ideology and ignored left-wing examples like Russia and China
-not comprehensive dispositional explanation that can account for a wider scale

Question 59

Resistance to social influence: social support

Question 60

how does conformity and obedience increase resistance to social influence?

Answer 60

-pressure is reduced if they have an ‘ally’ as it builds confidence to follow their own conscience and avoid NSI(Asch’s variation where one confederate gave right answer, conformity dropped to 5%)
-dissenting ally act as ‘models’ that reminds them there are other legitimate ways of thinking(obedience dropped from 65% to 10% with dissenting ally in Milgram’s study)

Question 61

Evaluation of social support

research for positive effects of social support

Answer 61

-Albrecht et al assigned slightly older mentors to pregnant adolescents to help resist pressure to smoke as part of an 8 week programme. adolescents with a buddy were less likely to smoke.
-shows that social support can help young people resist social influence as part of an intervention in the real world

Question 62

Evaluation of social support

research for dissenting ally

Answer 62

-Gamson et al’s ppts were told to produce evidence to help an oil company with a smear campaign.
-higher resistance(88%) than in Milgram’s because ppts could discuss and peer support which undermines legitimacy of authority.

Question 63

Evaluation of social support

research for dissenting ally in conformity

Answer 63

-Allen and Levin showed that social support can help individuals to resist group influence.
-Found that resistance was higher in Asch-like study when ppt had a dissenting ally with good eyesight(64% refusal to conform) and only 3% with no ally
-motivation to be free of peer pressure
HOWEVER when dissenter had thick glasses(poor eyesight), resistance was only 36%

Question 64

What is Rotter(1966)’s LOC?

Answer 64

-extent someone feels in control over what happens to them and how it affects their life
internals believe they have control over what happens to them whereas externals believe things are out of their control
-IT IS A CONTINUUM

Question 65

how does LOC impact resistance to social influence?

Answer 65

-internals are more likely to resist as they take personal responsibility for their actions and base decisions on their own beliefs
-more self confident and less need for social approval

Question 66

Evaluation of LOC

research support

Answer 66

-Holland(1967) repeated Milgram’s study and measure whether ppts were internals or externals
-37% of internals didn’t continue to highest level in comparison to 23% externals.
increases the validity of the LOC explanation.

Question 67

Evaluation of LOC

contradictory research

Answer 67

-Twenge analysed data from American obedience studies over 40 years(from 1960 to 2002)
-people are more resistant to obedience but also more external
-challenges link between LOC and internals however this may be due to less being in our control in modern day.

Question 68

Evaluation of social support

weak link between LOC and resistance from Rotter himself

Answer 68

Critiques his own link & says a person’s LOC only significantly affects their behaviour in new situations.
If you have conformed or obeyed in a specific situation in the past, there’s chances you’ll do so again, regardless of high or low LOC.
-exaggerated link so low external validity

Question 69

Strength of LOC & resistance: Oliner & Oliner (1998)

Answer 69

Interviewed non-Jewish survivors of ww2 & compared those who had resisted order & protects Jews to those who hadn’t.
-found that 406 ‘rescuers’ who resisted orders were more likely to have higher IL.
Supports idea that high IL means individual is less likely to follow orders.

Question 70

Social influence: Minority influence

Answer 70

-Refers to when 1 or small amount of people influence the beliefs / behaviours of others.
-Distinct & different from majority influence.
-Leads to internalisation.

Question 71

Minority influence: Moscovici et al (1969)

Answer 71

172 females given eye tests to ensure they weren’t colourblind.
-placed in group of 4 ppts & 2 confederates.
-state colour of slide out loud.
Condition 1:
-confederates answered green all 36 slides.
Condition 2:
-confederates answered green 24 times & blue 12.
Findings:
1. consistent majority lead to 8.42% influence.
2. inconsistent minority lead to 1.25% influence.
3. control group got wrong 0.25% of the trials.

Question 72

Ways minority influence occurs

Answer 72

-Consistency
-Commitment
-Flexibility

Question 73

Minority influence: Consistency

Answer 73

Over time, consistency increases interest from others.
-Makes people rethink own views.
2 types:
-synchronic consistency people in minority all saying the same thing.
-diachronic consistency they’ve been saying same thing for LONG time.

Question 74

Minority influence: Commitment

Answer 74

-Minorities engage in extreme activities to attract attention to cause.
-Important that activities are at risk to minority showing commitment to cause.
-Makes people interested & makes them pay attention - the augmentation principle.

Question 75

Minority influence: Flexibility

Answer 75

-Researchers questioned if consistency alone is enough.
-Nameth (1986) argued if minority is inflexible, majority are unlikely to change as they’d appear too rigid.

Question 76

Minority influence: Flexibility - Nameth (1986)

Answer 76

Constructed mock jury with 3 genuine ppts & 1 confederate.
-deciding on amount of compensation to give to ski lift victim.
-confederate said low amount & majority said high amount.
When confederate changed compensation offer a bit, majority adjusted.
Shows minority should balance consistency & flexibility to be less rigid & have greater influence.

Question 77

Minority influence: The process of change

Answer 77

Over time, people become concerted & switch from majority to minority.
-deeper processing is important for this.
-the more this happens, the faster the rate of conversion - the snowball effect.
Leads to social change (minority becomes majority).
Social crypto amnesia - people forget how change happened.

Question 78

Strength of minority influence: Moscovici & Wood (1994) - Consistency

Answer 78

-Moscovici’s blue/green slide study showed that consistent minority opinion has a greater effect on changing views of others than an inconsistent opinion
-Wood et al(1994) carried out meta analysis of almost 100 similar studies and found the consistent minorities were the most influential.
-Shows that presenting a consistent view is a minimum requirement for minority trying to influence majority.

Question 79

Strength of minority influence: Martin et al (2003) - Deeper processing

Answer 79

Presented particular viewpoint & measured ppts agreement.
-one group heard minority agree with initial view.
-another heard majority agree with it
-both exposed to a conflicting viewpoint
Found that those who listened to minority group were less likely to change opinions.
Suggest minority message had more enduring effect.
Counterpoint: study makes clear distinction from majority & minority whereas irl, social influence cases are more complicated. Typically, majorities have power & status, while minorities are very committed to causes.
These features are absent in research as minority simply means smaller group.
Research is limited in what it tells us about minority influence in real world situations

Question 80

Limitation of minority influence: Artificial tasks

Answer 80

Identifying colour of a slide is artificial therefore research is far removed from how minorities tend to change behaviour of majorities irl.
Usually major decisions irl such as decision making/political campaigning.
Means findings of studies lack in external validity & are limited in how MI can apply to real-world situations.

Question 81

Limitation of Minority influence: Power of MI

Answer 81

Figure of agreement with consistent minority was only 8%. Suggests MI is quite rare and not a useful concept.
But when ppts wrote down answers privately, they were more likely to agree with minority.

Question 82

Social influence: Social change

Answer 82

-social change: when a society adopts a new way of behaving which is accepted as the “norm”.
-process usually starts out with a minority trying to win over rest of society.
E.g. MLK & Nelson Mandela (consistent) & Rosa Parks (commitment).

Question 83

Social change: 6 processes - African American civil rights movement

Answer 83

-Drawing attention through social proof: marches drew attention to fact that social institutions were exclusive to whites & there was segregation.
-Consistency: activists represented minority of population but position remained consistent providing non-aggressive messages.
-Deeper processing: activism meant people who accepted status quo began thinking deeply about its unjustness.
-Augmentation principle: individuals risked lives. E.g. freedom riders were ethnic minorities who boarded buses in south & were beaten. Reinforced message & indicates strong belief.
-Snowball effect: activists got attention & received support. 1964 US civil rights act prohibited discrimination.
-Social cryptomnesia: people have no memory of how change happened.

Question 84

Social change: Conformity

Answer 84

-In Asch’s study, he had one confederate who gave correct answers throughout the whole procedure encouraging others to do so too.
-An approach used by environmental & health campaigns is NSIc where they provide info about what others are doing e.g. “Bin it- others do”.
-Social change is encouraged by drawing attention to what others are doing.

Question 85

Social change: Obedience

Answer 85

Milgram’s research demonstrates importance of disobedient role models in a variation where teacher refused to give shocks, encouraged disobedience in ppts.
-Zimbardo suggested obedience creates social change through gradual commitment. Once a small instruction is obeyed, it becomes difficult to resist a bigger one.

Question 86

Strength of Social change: Nolan et al (2008) - NSI

Answer 86

Research support in real life situation.
-focussed on energy consumption in a community.
-found when they told 1 group of ppts other residents reduced energy consumption, they did the same.
Shows social change could occur through NSI.

Question 87

Strength of Social change: Nemeth (2009)

Answer 87

-Claims social change is due to the type of thinking minorities inspire.
-When people consider minority arguments, they engage in divergent, broader thinking where they actively search for info.
-He argues this leads to better & more creative solutions to social issues.
-Shows why dissenting minorities are valuable as they stimulate new ideas & open minds in a way majorities can’t.

Question 88

Limitation of Social change: Mackie (1987)

Answer 88

-Deeper processing may not play a role in how minorities bring about social change.
-Mackie says that majority influence creates deeper processing if you do not share their views as if a majority believes something different to you, then you’re forced to think long and hard about their arguments.
Challenges validity of MI

Question 89

Limitation of Social change: Bashir et al (2013)

Answer 89

-Argues people still resist social change.
-Found that ppts were less likely to behave in environmentally friendly ways because they didn’t want to be associated with the minority ‘environmentalists’.
-Described environmentalist activists in negative ways (“tree-huggers”).