Biopsychology

Question 1

What is the nervous system?

Answer 1

-a specialised communication system made up of a network of cells called neurons
-based on electrical and chemical signals

Question 2

two main functions of the nervous system

Answer 2

-to collect process and respond to information in the environment
-to co-ordinate organs + cells in the body

Question 3

What are the subsystems of the nervous system?

Answer 3

-the central nervous system
-the peripheral nervous system

Question 4

the CNS

Answer 4

-made up of the brain and spinal cord
-the brain receives info from sensory receptors (eyes, ears, skin etc) about the environment
- brain then sends this information to the muscles and glands of the body through the spinal cord

Question 5

The brain

Answer 5

-divided into 2 hemispheres
-responsible for all conscious awareness
-the cerebral cortex(outer layer of the brain) is responsible for higher-level processes including language, memory, emotion, intelligence, personality etc.​

Question 6

4 main areas of the brain

Answer 6

-cerebrum= the largest part of the brain + 4 lobes with different primary functions i.e the frontal lobe which is involved with thought and the production of speech
-cerebellum= controls motor skills + balance i.e coordinating muscle movement
-diencephalon= contains the thalamus which directs impulses to the relevant area of the brain and the hypothalamus which regulates body temp, release of hormones, hunger + thirst
-the brain stem= regulates automatic functions i.e breathing, motor and sensory neurones pass these impulses through CNS

Question 7

The spinal cord

Answer 7

-role is to relay info between the brain and the rest of the body
-an extension of the brain
-connected to different parts of the body by pairs of spinal nerves, which connect with specific muscles and glands(PNS)
-contains neurons/nerve cells that enable us to perform simple reflexes i.e pulling your hand away from a hot plate

Question 8

the PNS

Answer 8

-transmits messages, via millions of neurons(nerve cells), to and from the CNS
-divided into autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system

Question 9

the ANS

Answer 9

-governs involuntary actions in vital organs and glands i.e breathing rate, digestion, stress responses
-divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions
-only motor neurons are involved
-control centres are in the brain stem

Question 10

the SNS

Answer 10

-controls skeletal muscle and movement
-carries commands from the motor cortex in your brain
-involved in reflex + voluntary actions​
-both sensory AND motor neurons are involved

Question 11

the syNS and the pSNS

Answer 11

-regulate the same organs but have opposite effects due to the neurotransmitters in each division–} either excitatory(which increases activity) or inhibitory(calming effect)
-syNS prepares the body for flight or fight= sends messages to every organ and gland within the body, preparing for rapid action when the individual is under threat
-the PSNS relaxes the body once the emergency has passed

Question 12

What is the endocrine system?

Answer 12

-instructs glands to release hormones in the bloodstream–} hormones are carried towards target organs with a specific receptor in the body
-acts slower than the nervous system but had widespread effects

Question 13

Hypothalamus

Answer 13

-regulates internal body temp
-controls the pituitary gland + links the NS to the endocrine system

Question 14

Pituitary gland

Answer 14

-‘master gland’–} control the release of hormones from other glands i.e oxytocin(love hormone)

Question 15

Pineal gland

Answer 15

-produces the hormone melatonin, responsible for making you sleepy

Question 16

Thyroid + Parathyroid gland

Answer 16

-secretes thyroxine to regulate metabolism
-affects metabolic rates therefore affecting growth

Question 17

Thymus

Answer 17

-serves a vital role in the training and development of T-lymphocytes (type of white blood cell involved in the immune system)

Question 18

Pancreas

Answer 18

-controls blood glucose levels with the release of insulin/glucagon

Question 19

Adrenal glands

Answer 19

-regulates metabolism + maintains balance of salt and water in the body
-produces adrenaline, involved in the stress response

Question 20

Ovary (in females)

Answer 20

-responsible for producing hormones in sexual development in females i.e oestrogen

Question 21

Placenta (during pregnancy)

Answer 21

-provides O2 + nutrients to your growing baby + removes waste products from baby’s food

Question 22

Testes (in males)

Answer 22

-responsible for providing hormones in sexual development in males i.e testosterone

Question 23

Hormones

Answer 23

-secreted into the bloodstream and affect any cell in the body that have a receptor for that particular hormone
-i.e thyroid gland produces thyroxine–} increases heart rate + metabolic rates which affects growth rates

Question 24

What is the fight or flight response?

Answer 24

-evolved as a survival mechanism= enabled humans and animals to react quickly
-upon sensing a threat, the amygdala becomes mobilised–} associates sensory signals with emotions i.e fear or anger
-this sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus which communicates to kickstart the response

Question 25

Fight or flight response

Answer 25

-when a stressor is perceived, the hypothalamus activates the pituitary gland
-this triggers activity in the sympathetic branch of the ANS
-ANS changes from its normal resting state to the physiologically aroused sympathetic state

Question 26

Adrenaline

Answer 26

-released by the adrenal medulla(part of the adrenal gland near the kidney) into the bloodstream
-triggers physiological changes in the body:
- increased heart rate
- slow digestion in the gut
- inhibits salivary production in salivary glands
- triggers release of blood glucose (to supply energy)
- inhibits urination by relaxing the bladder (takes up less energy)
- dilates pupils (take in more light to see)
- dilates bronchi in the lungs (more O2)

Question 27

Immediate and automatic

Answer 27

-physiological changes are an acute and automatic response in the body
-i.e increased heart rate + breathing rate, dilated pupils

Question 28

Parasympathetic action

Answer 28

-returns the body to its resting state
-works antagonistically to the sympathetic system
-i.e stimulates digestion + saliva production etc
-rest and digest response

Question 29

Evaluating fight or flight:
Gender bias

Answer 29

-Taylor et al (2000) suggested that, for women, behavioural responses to stress are ‘tend and befriend’ rather than fight or flight–} protect themselves and their young through nurture and form protective alliances with other women
-different way of coming because their responses are based around being the primary caregiver of their offspring
-produce higher levels of oxytocin than men
-Lee and Harvey (2012) found that the SRY gene, found exclusively on the male Y chromosome, results in the fight or flight response
HOWEVER Von Dawans et al found that acute stress could lead to ‘tend and befriend’ for both men AND women i.e human connection during 9/11–} protective nature of human social relationships

Question 30

Evaluating fight or flight:
weak application

Answer 30

-the physiological responses associated with fight or flight are not adapted to modern life
-repetitive stress response leads to a constant raised BP caused by the SyNS
-this can lead to physical damage in blood vessel + eventually heart disease

Question 31

Evaluating fight or flight:
limited explanation

Answer 31

-Gray(1998)= the first phase of reacting to a threat is to avoid confrontation by FREEZING
-the adaptive advantage is that freezing focuses attention and allows you to look for new information in order to make the best response for that particular threat

Question 32

What is a neuron?

Answer 32

-aka a nerve cell
- a specialised cell designed to transmit information to other neurons, muscle, or gland cells through electrical + chemical signals
- over 100 billion neurons in the body – of which 80% are located in the brain

Question 33

3 main types of neurons

Answer 33

-sensory neurons= carry messages from the PNS to the CNS, have long dendrites and short axons
-relay neurons= connect the sensory and motor neurons, have short dendrites and axons
-motor neurons= connect the CNS to effectors i.e muscles + glands, have short dendrites and long axons

Question 34

The structure of a neuron: cell body

Answer 34

-has a nucleus which carries the genetic material of the cell
-determines what type of cell it is

Question 35

The structure of a neuron:
dendrite

Answer 35

-protrude from the cell body
-carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons towards the cell body

Question 36

The structure of a neuron:
axon

Answer 36

-carries the impulses away from the cell body down the length of the entire neuron

Question 37

The structure of a neuron:
myelin sheath

Answer 37

-fatty layer that covers the axon
-protects the axon and speeds the electrical transmission of the impulse

Question 38

The structure of a neuron:
Nodes of Ranvier

Answer 38

-gaps that are segmented in the myelin sheath by speeding up the transmission of the impulse by forcing it to ‘jump’ across the gaps along the axon

Question 39

The structure of a neuron:
axon terminal buttons

Answer 39

-communicates with the next neuron in the chain across a gap known as the synapse

Question 40

Where are the neurons located?

Answer 40

-cell bodies of motor neurons may be in the CNS but the long axons form part of the PNS
-sensory neurons are located in the PNS, in clusters(ganglia)
-Relay neurons make up 97% of all neurons and most are found within the brain + visual system

Question 41

Electrical transmission

Answer 41

-a neuron is negatively charged when in a resting state within a cell compared to the outside
-when a neuron is activated by a stimulus, the inside of the cell becomes positively charged–} causes action potential to occur
-creates an electrical impulse that travels down the axon towards the end of the neuron

Question 42

How do neurons communicate with each other?

Answer 42

-neurons communicate with each other in groups called neural networks (not physically connected)
-signals WITHIN neurons are transmitted electrically but signals BETWEEN neurons are transmitted chemically across the synapse (gap between 2 dendrites)

Question 43

Neurotransmitters

Answer 43

-chemical messengers in the NS that can trigger an electrical impulse