Issues and Debates

Question 1

What is universality?

Answer 1

Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to everyone, despite differences of experience and upbringing. Gender bias and culture bias threaten the universality of findings in psychology.
Universality means all research is assumed to apply equally to both genders in the context of gender bias.

Question 2

Outline the 3 main ways gender bias can occur

Answer 2

Male samples:
- Research conducted on all-male samples and this not being made clear in the subsequent report
- Findings are then generalised to women e.g. Milgram’s research on obedience, where the male only sample was not hidden, but the findings have been used to explain all obedience to authority figure from both males and females.
Male behaviour as standard:
- If behaviour of women differs from that of men, the behaviour is seen as a deviation from the norm (androcentrism)
Biological differences emphasis:
- Explanations for behaviour that emphasise the biology of the individual, and also sometimes underemphasise the role of social and external factors

Question 3

What is gender bias?

Answer 3

The differential treatment and or representation of males and females, based on stereotypes and / or not real differences.

Question 4

Outline alpha bias, with an example

Answer 4

Alpha bias refers to theories which exaggerate the differences between males and females. For example, Freud argued that there are genuine psychological differences between men and women. His theory suggests that women are inferior, as young girls suffer from ‘penis envy’, and he viewed femininity as a failed form of masculinity.

Question 5

Outline beta bias, with an example

Answer 5

Beta bias refers to theories which ignore or minimise the sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from males can apply equally to females. For example, biological research into the fight or flight response has often been carried out with male animals. It was assumed that this would not be a problem as the fight or flight response would be the same for both sexes. However, a beta bias can prompt more research: Taylor et al found that females adopt a tend and befriend response in stressful or dangerous situations. Women are more likely to protect their offsprings and form alliances with other women rather than fight an adversary or flee.

Question 6

Outline androcentrism, with an example

Answer 6

Androcentrism is theories which are centred on, or focused on males. The result of beta bias in psychological research is that we end up with a view of human nature that is supposed to apply to men and women alike, but in fact has a male or androcentric view. For example, Asch’s conformity studies were conducted on an entirely male sample, and he assumed that the findings would be similar for both males and females, which is a beta bias. This can affect psychological research as it provides a potentially misleading or inaccurate representation of how one sex will respond in a given situation.

Question 7

Outline gender bias in research methods

Answer 7

Institutional sexism:
- Men predominate at a senior research a level
- Research agendas follows male concerns and female concerns may be marginalised or ignored
Use of standardised procedures in research studies:
- Women and men might respond differently to research situations
- Women and men might be treated differently by researchers
- This could create artificial differences or mask real ones
Dissemination of research results:
- Publishing bias towards positive results
- Research that finds gender differences is more likely to get published than that which doesn’t
- This exaggerates the extent of gender differences

Question 8

What are the implications of gender bias?

Answer 8

• Gender biased research can create misleading assumptions about female behaviour or fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices
• It may provide a ‘scientific’ justification to deny woman opportunities within the workplace, and wider society
• Gender bias is not just a methodological problem, but could have damaging consequences that affect the real lives and prospects of women
• For example, women are twice as likely to be diagnosed with depression than men

Question 9

Evaluate gender bias

Answer 9

Gender biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes, and validate discriminatory practices. It may provide a ‘scientific’ justification to deny woman opportunities within the workplace or in wider society. In any domain in which men set the standard of normalcy, as Carol Tavris puts it, ‘it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal’. Thus, gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women, for instance, females are twice as likely to be diagnosed with depression than men.

One of the main limitations of psychological research is that issues of gender bias often go unchallenged. For example, Darwin‘s established theory of sexual selection suggests that women are more selective in terms of mate selection. These views have only recently been challenged by DNA evidence suggesting that women are equally as competitive as men when the need arises. This highlights the importance of continually challenging early gender research and reducing gender bias to ensure that a valid picture of women is portrayed in contemporary studies.

A way to reduce gender bias is to take a feminist approach which attempts to restore the imbalance in both psychological theories and research. For example, feminist psychology accepts that there are biological differences between males and females: research by Eagly actually claims that female are less effective leaders than males. However, the purpose of Eagly’s claim is to help researchers develop training programs aimed at reducing the lack of female leaders in the real world.

However, not all psychologists agree with Eagly and some psychologist claim that males and females are not significantly different and that it is the research methodology used in gender research which is biased, resulting in males and females appearing different when they are not. This is important because it could reduce the validity of gender theories and research resulting in an alpha bias. However, this can also result in a beta bias, which on the one hand promotes equal treatment, but on the other also draws attention away from important differences between males and females.

Question 10

What is culture bias?

Answer 10

Cultural bias is the tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions

Question 11

What is alpha bias?

Answer 11

Alpha bias occurs when a theory assumes that cultural groups are profoundly different

Question 12

What is beta bias?

Answer 12

Beta bias occurs when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised and all people are assumed to be the same resulting in universal research designs and conclusions

Question 13

Outline ethnocentrism with an example

Answer 13

Ethnocentrism means seeing the world from only one’s own cultural perspective and believing that this one perspective is both normal and correct. Ethnocentrism is an often inadvertent lack of awareness that the other ways of seeing things can be as valid as one’s own. Therefore, any study which draws samples from only one cultural context, like American college students, and then generalises its findings to all people everywhere is suspect.
One example of ethnocentrism is Ainsworth’s strange situation. The strange situation was developed to assess attachment types, and many researchers assume that the strange situation has the same meaning for the infants from other cultures as it does for American children. However, it is not the case that German mothers are more insensitive than American mothers. Instead, they value and encourage independent behaviour and therefore their children react differently in the strange situation.

Question 14

Outline cultural relativism with an example

Answer 14

Cultural relativism insist that behaviour can be properly understood only if the cultural context is taken into consideration.
An example of cultural relativism is the meaning of intelligence is different in every culture. For example, Sternberg pointed out that coordination skills that may be essential to life in preliterate society, e.g. those motor skills required for shooting a bow and arrow, may be mostly irrelevant to intelligent behaviour for most people in a literate and more developed society. Therefore, the only way to understand intelligence is to take the cultural context into account.

Question 15

Outline emics, etics, and imposed etics

Answer 15

And etic construct is a theoretical idea that is assumed to apply in all cultural groups.
An emic construct is one that applies in only one cultural group.Cultural bias can occur if a researcher assumes that an emic construct is actually an etic. This results in an imposed etic, where a culture-specific idea is wrongly imposed on another culture.

Question 16

Evaluate culture bias

Answer 16

One way to deal with cultural bias is to recognise it when it occurs. Smith and Bond found, in their 1998 survey of European textbooks on social psychology, that 66% of the studies were American, 32% European, and only 2% from the rest of the world. This suggests that psychological research is severely unrepresentative and can be greatly improved by simply selecting different cultural groups to study. Therefore, just appreciating understanding cultural bias can help psychologists to avoid and overcome this issue.

One issue is that culturally biased research can have significant real-world effects by, for example, amplifying and validating damaging stereotypes. The US Army used an IQ test before World War I which was culturally biased towards the dominant white majority. Unsurprisingly, the test showed that African-Americans were at the bottom of the IQ scale. This matters because it had a negative effect on the attitudes of Americans towards this group of people, which highlights the negative impact that culturally biased research can have.

One strength of developing knowledge of culturally biased research is that this heightened awareness of cultural diversity has led to the development of ‘indigenous psychologies’, which are theories drawing explicitly on the particular experiences of people in different cultural context. One example is Afrocentrism, a movement which suggests that because all black people have their roots in Africa, theories about them must recognise the African context of behaviours and attitudes. This matters because it has led to the emergence of theories that are more relevant to the lives and cultures of people not only in Africa but also to those far removed from their African origins. The development of endogenous psychologies is often seen as a strength of cultural relativism. However, you could argue that Afrocentric theories are as culturally biased as those they claim to replace as they are still ethnocentric, which may be a limitation to developing knowledge of culturally biased research.

Question 17

What are ethical implications of research studies and theories?

Answer 17

The term ethical implications considers the impact or consequences that psychological research has on the rights of other people in a wider context not just the participants taking part in the research.
- Consideration of the ethical implications of research and theory as part of the research process
- If there is no thought given to how the research process or results could affect those involved in it or society in general, the effects can be wide reaching in a detrimental sense
- The degree of social sensitivity of research must be an important part of planning what will be examined

Question 18

Give an example of an ethical implication of a research study, and how it may be socially sensitive

Answer 18

Milgram’s study had ethical implications. The participants were deceived and they were unable to provide fully informed consent. The experiment was very distressing for them. However, they were debriefed and took part in a follow-up interview. Participants said that they suffered no long-term effects. Therefore, it could be argued that the importance of the findings did justify the way the research was conducted, as the research is useful to society in determining the factors that affect obedience to authority. It could be argued that Milgram’s research is socially sensitive as the results can be used to ensure that people obey orders, including those they don’t wish to follow.

Question 19

Give an example of an ethical implication of a theory, and how it may be socially sensitive

Answer 19

Bowlby’s theory of attachment suggests that children form one special attachment bond, usually with their mother, which must take place within a critical period. Bowlby also suggested that this attachment bond affects their future relationships through an internal working model. While Bowlby’s theory has contributed to the development of childcare practices, is also encourages the view that a woman’s place is at home with her children, which could make some mothers feel guilty for wanting to return to work following childbirth. It could be argued that Bowlby’s theory of attachment is socially sensitive, as it could be used to coerce mothers to stay at home and look after their children.

Question 20

Outline how psychologists can attempt to minimise the ethical implications and thus the social sensitivity of their research

Answer 20

The research question - the researcher must consider their research question carefully. Asking questions like ‘are there racial differences in IQ’ or ‘is intelligence inherited’ may be damaging to members of a particular group.

The methodology used - the researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participants and their right to confidentiality and anonymity. For example, if someone admits to committing a crime, should the researcher maintain confidentiality?

The institutional context - the researcher should be mindful of how the data data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research. If the research is funded by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings?

Interpretation and application of the findings - the researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real world. Could the data or results be used to inform policy?

Question 21

What is meant by socially sensitive research?

Answer 21

The term socially sensitive research is used to describe studies where there are potential social consequences for the participants or the group of people represented by the research.

Question 22

Evaluate ethical implications and social sensitivity

Answer 22

Socially sensitive research can lead to issues of discrimination and therefore some psychologists would argue against conducting this form of research. For example, between 1907 and 1963, over 64,000 individuals were forcibly sterilised under eugenic legislation in the United States, and in 1972, the United States Senate committee revealed that at least 2000 involuntary sterilisations had been performed on poor black women without their consent or knowledge. This could be ‘justified’ by flawed research findings which argued that black Americans have lower IQ scores in comparison to white Americans, highlighting a serious issue with socially sensitive research.

It is important to recognise that not all socially sensitive research is controversial, and some is desirable and beneficial to society. For example, research examining eyewitness testimony, especially the use of child witnesses, has found that young children can be reliable witnesses if they are questioned in a timely and appropriate manner. In this area, socially sensitive research has resulted in a good working relationship between psychologists and the legal profession to help improve the accuracy and validity of children eyewitnesses.

Socially sensitive research has been used by the government and other institutions to shape social policy, despite the sometimes dubious nature of the findings, e.g. Bert’s research into IQ, and without full consideration of the moderating effects of the environment and characteristics such as intelligence. There is other research that may seem harmless but also has socially sensitive consequences. For example, in the 1950s research into the persuasive effects of subliminal messages was used by marketing companies to advertise their products. One study claimed that sales of Coca-Cola and popcorn increased significantly when images of these flashed up on cinema screens too quickly for audiences to be aware of them. It was later revealed that the author of the study had made his findings up. Although there was little damage done in this context, research that seeks to manipulate the public has obvious ethical implications. It also raises the issue of who benefits from such research, which may be particularly difficult to manage once the research is ‘out there’.

Question 23

What is the view of the nature side of the nature-nurture debate

Answer 23

Nature is the view that behaviour is the product of innate genetic or biological factors

Question 24

What is the view of the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate

Answer 24

Nurture is the view that behaviour is the product of environmental influences

Question 25

Outline the nature approach, with an example

Answer 25

• all possible behaviours are present from conception - genes provide the blueprint for behaviours, with some present from birth and others preprogrammed to emerge with age
• nature is a developmental approach, e.g. Piaget asserted that children’s thought processes change at predetermined age related stages -> changes in age are related to changes in behaviour
• behaviour is caused by the physiological/biological characteristics we are born with
• behaviour is determined by biology -> determinist view suggests all behaviour is determined by hereditary factors such as inherited characteristics or genetic make up we’re born with

An example of nature is Bowlby proposed that children come into the world biologically programmed to form attachments, because this will help them to survive. This suggests attachment behaviours are naturally selected and passed on as a result of genetic inheritance (heredity mechanisms)

Question 26

Outline the nurture approach, with an example

Answer 26

• an individual’s behaviour is determined by the environment, such as the things people teach them, the things they observe, and because of different situations they are in
• nurture has a deterministic view, as it proposes that all human behaviour is the result of interactions with the environment
  behaviourist theories are nurture theories:
• behaviour is shaped by interactions with the environment
• we are born an empty vessel waiting to be filled up by experiences gained from environmental interaction
• there’s no limit to what anyone can achieve as it depends on the quality of external influences and not genes
• the quality of the environment is key so you can become anything provided the environment is right

An example of nurture is behavioural psychologists explain attachment in terms of classical conditioning, where food is associated with the mother, and through many repeated pairings, the mother becomes a conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response in the child. Therefore, the child forms an attachment based on the pleasure experience as a result of being fed.

Question 27

What is the interactionist view in the context of nature-nurture

Answer 27

The interactionist approach is the view that both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour

Question 28

Give some examples of the nature-nurture debate

Answer 28

Rutter and Rutter argued that aggression leads to hostility. They described how aggressive children think and behave in ways that lead other children to respond to them in a hostile manner. This then reinforces the antisocial child’s view of the world. Thus, aggressive children tend to experience aggressive environments partly because they elicit aggressive responses.

Maguire et al took structural MRI scans of the brains of licensed London taxi drivers which were compared with controls who did not drive taxis. Hippocampal volume correlated with the amount of time spent as a taxi driver. The posterior hippocampi of taxi drivers were significantly larger, relative to those of control subjects. The posterior hippocampus stores a spatial representation of the environment, and can expand regionally in people with high dependence on navigational skills. Therefore, it appears the brain has the capacity for plasticity -> the structure of the brain can alter in response to environmental demands.

Question 29

Give some examples of the interactionist approach

Answer 29

The genetic disorder PKU (phenylketonuria) is caused by the inheritance of two recessive genes. People with PKU are unable to break down the amino acid phenylalanine which builds up in the blood and brain, causing mental retardation. However, if a child with PKU is placed on a low protein diet for the first 12 years they avoid this potentially serious lifelong disorder. PKU is a clear example of the interactionist approach. Nature (genetic inheritance) and nurture (high protein) have to work together for someone to experience the negative effects of this disorder.

Drug therapies can be developed to treat behavioural or psychological problems that have a physiological origin. For example, SSRIs can be used to treat depression and OCD.

Question 30

Evaluate the nature-nurture debate

Answer 30

Research suggests that the nature nurture debate has become a meaningless distinction and there is a growing body of research which highlights the importance of an interactionist approach. Research examining Neuroplasticity suggest that life experiences shape or biology. For example Maguire investigated the hippocampal volume of London taxi drivers brains. She found this region of the brain was larger in taxi drivers in comparison to non-taxi drivers. Consequently Maguire concluded that driving a taxi actually had an effect on the size of the hippocampus demonstrating the importance of an interactionist approach and presenting evidence that not she can affect nature.

While twin studies are often used to provide support for the nature argument, nearly all twin studies also highlight the need for an interactionist approach. Nestadt et al examined previous twin studies in relation to OCD. They found an average concordance rate of 68% in MZ twins and 31% in DZ twins, highlighting a significant genetic component. These results provide evidence of a strong genetic component, as the concordance rate of MZ twins is significantly higher than the DZ twins, which suggests that behaviour is partly attributed to nature because MZ twins share 100% DNA. However, the results also highlight the role of nurture, as the concordance rate is not 100%, again highlighting the importance of taking an interactionist approach.

Most psychologists now believe that we should consider both nature and nurture and therefore adopt an interactionist approach. A celebrated example of the interactionist approach is the diathesis-stress model, which suggests that even though one may be born with a biological vulnerability, such as a gene for depression, depression will only develop if it’s triggered by a stressor in the environment. Research has demonstrated that not everyone with the gene for depression goes on to develop it, suggesting that one’s nature is only expressed under certain conditions of nurture. The interactionist approach has led to the development of theories/models that have helped improve understanding and treatment of many physical and psychological illnesses.

Question 31

What is the view of the determinism side of the determinism versus free will debate?

Answer 31

Determinism is the view that free will is an illusion and that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control. Consequently, our behaviour is viewed as predictable.

Question 32

What is hard determinism?

Answer 32

Hard determinism is the view that forces outside of our control, e.g. biology or past experience, shape our behaviour. Hard determinism is seen as incompatible with free will.

Question 33

What is soft determinism?

Answer 33

Soft determinism is the view that behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make up, but only to a certain extent, and that there is an element of free will in all behaviour.

Question 34

What is the view of the free will side of the determinism versus free will debate?

Answer 34

Free will is the idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave. The assumption is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self determined.

Question 35

What are the definitions of free will?

Answer 35

Choice:
- people have free will if they have genuine choice of behaviour
- this is untestable, as we may not be able to detect existing causes
Behaviour that is unconstrained:
- behaviour is often predictable, so we can’t say behaviour is random -> there are usually causes
- seeing behaviour as unconstrained means these causes don’t have to be adhered to
Voluntary behaviour:
- behaviour over which we have control

Question 36

Outline the idea that free will is an illusion

Answer 36

The idea that free will is an illusion is an ongoing philosophical debate. An American author and neuroscientist Sam Harris argued that free will is an illusion: our actions are the product of brain states, which are themselves the result of prior causes, which in turn are generated by a universe over which we have no control. Therefore, you do not make choices, but through a combination of biological and environmental factors, your behaviour is determined.

Question 37

Outline the behaviourist approach to free will and determinism

Answer 37

• our behaviour is a consequence of reward and punishment, that acts as positive and negative reinforcement
• behaviourist believe we can predict human behaviour
• support for this comes from successful treatments through aversion therapy
• there is support from theories such as operant and classical conditioning
• Skinner argued that all behaviour is determined by environmental events and that humans tend to repeat behaviours that are rewarded
• Skinner also stated that free will was simply an illusion
  However:
• Bandura criticises Skinner for being too deterministic, as if this were true, we would change our behaviour constantly in response to changing environments
• Bandura believed in reciprocal determinism, which is where free will and determinism meet
• every time we imitate or model, we affect the behaviour of the person we are at imitating, which suggests we are making choices through social learning
• we only model on those who we aspire to admire again, which is an element of choice

Question 38

Outline the psychodynamic approach to free will and determinism

Answer 38

• our personality is determined by our childhood experience
• internal systems such as defence mechanisms determine the way people behave as adults
• our thoughts are determined within the framework of the id, ego, and superego
• support for this comes from the success of psychoanalysis as a treatment for mental disorders - - - the psychodynamic approach, although mainly deterministic, believes that there is a potential for free will, which is psychic determinism
• Freud stated that psychoanalysis is based on the belief that people can change their behaviour

Question 39

Outline the biological approach to free will and determinism

Answer 39

• the biological approach believes that behaviour is determined by a person’s genes and internal systems - in regards to mental disorders, this approach states that it is not the patient’s fault they are ill
• we can predict our behaviour as a consequence of our brain structure and functions, for example, brain damage might cause schizophrenia
• we can predict our behaviour as a consequence of our hormones, for example, testosterone causes aggression

Question 40

Outline the cognitive approach to free will and determinism

Answer 40

• we are limited by our mental abilities and the biological processes of the brain
• the consequences of our thinking is not always within our control
• this is soft determinism, as the free will of our thoughts is limited to the constraints of our mental capacity

Question 41

What is biological determinism?

Answer 41

The belief that behaviour is caused by biological influences, such as genetic, hormonal, and evolutionary, that we cannot control

Question 42

What is environmental determinism?

Answer 42

The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment, such as systems of reward and punishment, that we cannot control

Question 43

What is psychic determinism?

Answer 43

The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control

Question 44

Give an example of free will

Answer 44

Humanist psychologists argue against the determinism view, claiming that humans have self-determination and free will, and that behaviour is not the result of any single course. This is represented by the humanist hierarchy of needs, which includes biological and physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, and self actualisation.

Question 45

Evaluate the determinism versus free will debate

Answer 45

Humanist psychologists would argue against the idea of determinism, claiming that humans have self determinism and free will. Furthermore, there is evidence to support this claim. Identical twin studies typically find an 80% similarity in intelligence scores and a 40% similarity in the likelihood of depression. However, as identical twins share 100% of their genes, these results suggest that 20% is caused by other factors. This demonstrates that biological determinism is unable to explain any particular behaviour ,in this case, depression and intelligence. The same evidence indicates that no behaviour is completely environmentally determined. If identical twins only show an 80% likeness in terms of intelligence, it is therefore assumed that only 20% is caused by the environment, highlighting a limitation with biological and environmental determinism.

Many psychologists, theorists, and legal experts do not favour a deterministic point of view. If behaviour is determined by outside forces, that provides a potential excuse for criminal acts. For example, in 1981, Stephen Mobley argued that he was ‘born to kill’ after killing a pizza shop manager, because his family had a disposition towards violent and aggressive behaviour. This argument was rejected by an American court. Therefore, a hard determinist position may be undesirable, as it provides an excuse, allowing people to mitigate their own liability, and could lead to vexing legal issues regarding the nature of responsibility and intent.

The idea of free will has attracted similar criticisms. Some psychologists, such as Skinner, argue that free will is an illusion. Skinner insisted that our behaviour is in fact environmentally determined, even if we are unable or unwilling to admit it. In addition, more recent evidence provides some support for Skinner’s claim. For example, Libet et al found that the motor regions of the brain become active before a person registers conscious awareness of a decision, i.e. the decision to move a finger was actually a predetermined action of the brain. This strongly suggests that many responses are biologically determined, and that although we may believe that we have free will, Skinner’s claim that free will is an illusion may be correct. It is clear that psychologist do not favour either a hard determinist or entirely free will point of view. Therefore, a soft determinism perspective, that recognises an element of free will, is probably the most appropriate.

Question 46

What is the main question of the ideographic versus nomothetic debate?

Answer 46

‘Is it more important to look at the individual as unique or should you consider them as part of a group and try to establish similarities for that group?’

Question 47

Outline the idiographic approach to psychological investigation

Answer 47

Psychologists who take an idiographic approach focus on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature.
Idiographic methods of investigation include:
- case studies
- unstructured interviews
- thematic analysis
These methods provide an in-depth insight into individual behaviour. The idiographic approach does not seek to formulate laws or generalise results to others.

Question 48

Give an example of idiographic research

Answer 48

Shallice and Warrington examined the case of patient KF, who experienced a motorbike accident. KF’s short-term forgetting of auditory information was greater than his forgetting of visual information, suggesting that a short-term memory consists of multiple components. The idea of a single short-term memory component is undermined by patient KF, and the results suggest the existence of a separate auditory and visual short-term memory store.

• cognitive approach
• psychodynamic approach
• humanistic approach

Question 49

Outline the nomothetic approach to psychological research

Answer 49

Psychologists who take a nomothetic approach are concerned with establishing general laws based on the study of large groups of people.
Nomothetic methods of investigation include:
- experiments
- correlational research
- psychometric testing (personality)
The nomothetic approach is the main approach within scientifically oriented psychology.

Question 50

Explain the different approaches that use nomothetic research

Answer 50

Biological psychologists take a nomothetic approach when explaining psychological disorders such as OCD and depression. They typically pinpoint biological factors, such as neurotransmitters, that are responsible for such disorders, and use biological therapies, such as medications, to treat all patients

Behaviourists such as Pavlov and Skinner conducted experiments with animals in order to establish laws of learning, such as classical and operant conditioning, that could be generalised to humans and non-human animals.

Cognitive psychologists such as Atkinson and Shiffrin develop general laws, such as the multi store model of memory, which they believed could be generalised to everyone.

• psychodynamic approach

Question 51

Evaluate idiographic approaches

Answer 51

Strengths:
- can provide hypothesis for future scientific study - – - unique individuals allow us to study problems we could not create on a mass scale in a lab, for example, Phineas Gage and Clive Wearing
- provides a more complete understanding of the individual
- develop a holistic understanding of individuals
- the focus means the individual feels valued and unique
Limitations:
- difficult to generalise from detailed subjective knowledge about one person
- methods are subjective, flexible, and unstandardised so replication, prediction, and controlling behaviour is difficult, so not regarded as scientific
- largely neglects biological, especially genetic, influences

Question 52

Evaluate nomothetic approaches

Answer 52

Strengths:
- regarded as scientific as it includes precise measurement: prediction and control of behaviour, investigations of large groups, objective and controlled methods allows replication and generalisation
- has helped develop psychology as a whole become scientific by developing laws and theories which can be empirically tested
- can generalise to the wider population
Limitations:
- predictions can be made about groups but these may not apply to individuals
- extensive use of controlled lab experiments creates a lack of generalisation to every day life
- approach has been accused of losing sight of the whole person
- gives a superficial understanding of behaviour; people may act the same but for different reasons

Question 53

Do idiographic and nomothetic approaches compliment each other?

Answer 53

• idiographic and nomothetic approaches should not be seen as conflicting; it is more helpful to see them as complimentary
• the two approaches can be used together - idiographic can further develop a nomothetic law
• both can contribute to a scientific approach - idiographic suited to description, nomothetic to predictions
  For example:
• Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation was established through a nomothetic approach and stated that extreme maternal deprivation will lead to permanent long-term negative effects on development
• a case study of Czech twins showed maternal deprivation is not irreversible -> the identical twins had spent most of the first seven years of life locked in a cellar, and when they were found they could not understand language and were in a very poor physical condition. They were fostered and by the age of 14 they were viewed as normal.
• this idiographic approach to research stemmed from a nomothetic theory

Question 54

Evaluate nomothetic versus idiographic approaches

Answer 54

The nomothetic approach is considered scientific. The use of experimental, quantitative methods, controlled measurement, and the ability to predict behaviour are all strengths of the nomothetic approach. This matters because controlled methods allow psychologists to replicate research, to examine the reliability of the findings, which has helped psychology establish itself as a scientific discipline.

Furthermore, because the nomothetic approach is viewed as scientific, it is useful for predicting and controlling behaviour. For example, biological psychologists take a nomothetic approach when explaining obsessive compulsive disorder, and claim that OCD is caused by higher levels of dopamine and lower levels of serotonin. Drug therapies are developed on the basis of nomothetic research, and work by re-addressing a biological imbalance. This matters because SSRIs are used to treat OCD and increase the availability and uptake of serotonin. This reduces the anxiety associated with OCD, which helps to improve the lives of people suffering from this condition as a result of the nomothetic approach.

There are numerous strengths of taking an idiographic approach, and a case study method is a powerful tool for evaluating psychological theories. The case of patient KF exposed a limitation of the multi store model of memory by providing evidence that our short-term memory comprises of at least two components, auditory and visual memory, and not one, as stipulated by Atkinson and Shiffrin. Consequently, a single case study can generate further research into a particular phenomenon, which contributes to the development of new theories, highlighting a strength of the idiographic approach to psychological investigations.

Question 55

What is holism?

Answer 55

The idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience, and not as separate parts.

Question 56

What is reductionism?

Answer 56

Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into its singular component parts.
- argues that all psychological phenomenon can be reduced to simple parts
- the reductionist approach suggests that there are different levels of explanation, or levels in which we can break down behaviour
- it is based on the scientific assumption of parsimony: complex phenomena should be explained by the simplest underlying principles possible
- strong supporters of reductionism believe that behaviour and mental processes should be explained within the framework of basic sciences, such as physiology and chemistry

Question 57

Give some examples of holism in psychology

Answer 57

Gestalt psychology adopts a holistic approach to perception: when we perceive something in the real world, we do so as a whole rather than as a collection of bits and pieces.

Humanistic psychology argues that humans react to stimuli as an organised whole rather than a set of stimulus response links. As an approach, it uses qualitative methods to investigate all aspects of the individual, as well as the interactions between people.

Question 58

What is biological reductionism?

Answer 58

Biological reductionism refers to the way that biological psychologists try to reduce behaviour to a physical level, and explain it in terms of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structure etc.

Question 59

What is environmental reductionism?

Answer 59

Environmental reductionism is also known as stimulus response reductionism. Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of stimulus response associations, and that complex behaviours are a series of stimulus response chains.

Question 60

Explain the levels of reductionism

Answer 60

The lowest level is biological explanations. Physiological explanations attempt to explain behaviour in terms of neurochemicals, genes, and brain structure etc.
The middle level is psychological explanations. This includes behavioural/environmental, cognitive, and social explanations.
The highest level is social and cultural explanations. These explanations focus on the influence on behaviour of where and how we live, and our social groups.
For example:
Cellular structure and processes -> Brain structure -> Biochemistry -> Genetics -> Learned associations -> Cognition and emotion -> Social psychology -> Interpersonal interaction -> Social cognition -> Social groups, family etc

Question 61

Explain the interactionist approach in the context of holism and reductionism

Answer 61

• interactionism is an alternative approach to reductionism, focusing on how different levels of analysis interact with one another
• it differs from reductionism since an interactionist approach would not try to understand behaviour from explanations at one level but as an interaction between different levels
• so for example, we might better understand a mental disorder such as depression by bringing together explanations from physiological, cognitive, and socio-cultural levels
• such an approach might usefully explain the success of drug therapies in treating the disorder, why people with depression think differently about themselves and the world, and why depression occurs more frequently in particular populations

Question 62

Evaluate holism versus reductionism

Answer 62

Scientists are drawn to reductionist explanations. For example, most experimental psychology is based on the assumption that human behaviour can be studied effectively in relatively simple experiments, where complex behaviour is reduced to isolated variables. This allows researchers to study the different factors that influence human behaviour in a controlled manner, while establishing causal relationships. Consequently, both biological and environmental reductionism are viewed as scientific approaches, whereas holism is not.

Criticisms of reductionism takes many forms. Some psychologists argue that biological reductionism can lead to errors of understanding, because it ignores the complexity of human behaviour. For example, to treat conditions like ADHD with drugs in the belief that the condition consists of nothing more than neurochemical imbalances is to mistake the symptoms of the phenomenon for its true cause. Ritalin may reduce the symptoms but the conditions which gave rise to the ADHD have not been addressed. Furthermore, since success rates of drug therapy is a highly variable, the purely biological understanding seems inadequate. The holistic explanation attempts to overcome this criticism by blending different levels of explanation; holistic theory and approaches attempt to provide a complete and realistic understanding of human behaviour. However, holistic explanations do not establish causation because they do not examine behaviour in terms of operationalised variables that can be manipulated and measured. This means that holistic explanations are viewed as unscientific.

Criticisms of environmental reductionism are both methodological and substantive. Much of the relevant research in the behaviourist tradition has made use of non-human animals as subjects. However, it is debated whether human behaviour is simply a scaled up version of that of dogs or rats. Critics of reductionism point to the social context in which humans are embedded from the earliest moments of life, and to hard to measure factors like cognition, emotion, and intentionality. In this case, the reductionist position seems, if not clearly incorrect, then at least inadequate.

One limitation of the holism approach is that it may lack practical value. Holistic accounts of human behaviour tend to become hard to use as they become more complex. This can present researchers with a practical dilemma. If we accept, from the humanistic perspective, that there are many different factors that contribute to depression, such as the persons past, present relationships, their job, and family circumstance, then it becomes difficult to know which is the most influential. It is then difficult to know which to prioritise as the basis of therapy, for instance. This suggests that holistic accounts may lack practical value, whereas reductionist accounts may be better.