Issues and Debates Flashcards
What is the argument around idiographic and nomothetic approaches in psychology?
The argument about whether we should focus on studying the individual, or groups in order to generate general laws that apply to most people
Define the idiographic approach to psychology.
Studying behaviour by focusing on the individual and emphasising unique, subjective experience, doesn’t seek to generalise results.
Define the nomothetic approach to psychology.
Concerned with establishing general laws based on the study of large groups of people.
What are the research methods used by a psychologist taking an idiographic approach?
Case studies, unstructured interviews
What are the research methods used by a psychologist taking a nomothetic approach?
Lab/field/natural/quasi experiments, correlational research, statistical and quantitative methods used to analyse data
What are the weaknesses of taking an idiographic approach to psychological research?
Can’t generalise, Can’t predict behaviour and then prevent/treat it, Lacks scientific rigour (likely to have researcher bias), time consuming
What are the benefits of taking an idiographic approach to psychological research?
Rich and detailed information/understanding, Can develop personalised treatments (CCT)
What are the strengths of taking a nomothetic approach to psychological research?
Can develop treatments/preventative measures + highly scientific
What are the weaknesses of taking a nomothetic approach to psychological research?
studying large groups à lose subjective experience.lots of use of experiments à lacking ecological validity
Often, how are idiographic and nomothetic approaches connected and used in Psychology?
On many occasions, idiographic research can generate ideas which can then be researched on a larger scale using nomothetic methods.
Give an example of an approach in Psychology that uses both idiographic and nomothetic methods.
Psychodynamic or cognitive
Give an example of a piece of idiographic research in Psychology.
Little Hans (psychodynamic/gender), Case studies KF, CW, HM (memory), Genie (attachment)
Which approaches only use nomothetic research?
Biological and Behaviourist
What is the nature nurture debate?
The argument about how much of a particular behaviour is a result of environment and how much is genetic – which has a greater contribution?
Define the nature view in the nature nurture debate.
The view that behaviour is a product of innate, biological factors present at the point of conception.
Define the nurture view in the nature nurture debate.
The view that behaviour is a product of environmental influences (anything outside the body) e.g. people, events, physical world
Which approach takes the extreme nature view?
Biological
Which approach takes the extreme nurture view?
Behaviourist
What are people who subscribe to the nature view called?
Nativists
What are people who subscribe to the nurture view called?
Empiricists
Which/Who’s ideas are ‘nature explanations’ based on?
Darwin, evolution
Which/Who’s ideas are ‘nurture explanations’ based on?
John Locke, born a blank slate
Define heredity. Explain which part of the nature nurture debate it relates to.
Heredity is the process in which traits are passed down from one generation to the next, links to nature
Often, what is the conclusion of any research involved in the nature vs nurture debate?
That we need to take an interactionist approach – nature and nurture overlap to shape human behaviour – separating it is too simplistic.
Give an example of a concept we have studied that takes an extreme nature view.
Bowlby – born programmed to form attachments
Give an example of a concept we have studied that takes an extreme nurture view.
Learning theory of attachment (conditioning)
Give an example of a nature-nurture interactionist concept we have studied.
Diathesis-stress model for Schizophrenia, Depression, OCD, violent offending
What are the strengths of taking an extreme nature view?
+ can identify biological cause à develop biological treatment
What are the weaknesses of taking an extreme nature view?
- ignores possible influence of other important factors (often reductionist)
What are the strengths of taking an extreme nurture view?
+ if behaviour is learnt it can be modified/unlearnt à possible therapies/behaviour modification techniques
What are the weaknesses of taking an extreme nurture view?
- ignores possible influence of biological factors (often reductionist)
What are the responsibilities of governments if all behaviour is a result of nurture? (implication of extreme nurture view)
All children (as this is when key learning takes place) need the same good quality start in life
What are the responsibilities of governments if all behaviour is a result of nature? (implication of extreme nature view)
Need to modify criminal justice system
What is the reductionism holism debate?
Whether we should explain behaviour at the lowest level of explanation possible, or whether we should take into account as many factors as possible when explaining a behaviour.
Define the reductionist view in the RvH debate.
We should break behaviour down into it’s most basic components, breaking down complex issues into simpler elements.
Define the holistic view in the RvH debate.
We should only try to understand a behaviour or individual by examining all possible influences including the subjective experience of the individual.
Explain what is meant by biological reductionism.
Reduce behaviour to a physical level, focusing on neurotransmitters, neurones or hormones
Explain what is meant by environmental reductionism.
Reduce all behaviour to a series of learnt building blocks so complex behaviours are just a chain of stimulus and response associations
Which approaches tend to be reductionist?
Biological, Behaviourist
Which approach is truly holistic?
Humanistic
Give an example of a concept we have studied that is very reductionist.
Biological explanation/treatment of OCD
Give an example of a concept we have studied that tries to be holistic.
Humanistic approach & CCT
What are the strengths of having a reductionist explanation/approach?
+ Allows for scientific testing as can create an IV and DV à credibility
What are the weaknesses of having a reductionist explanation/approach?
- often misses details à incomplete explanations
What are the strengths of having an holistic explanation/approach?
+ Gives rich and detailed understanding of a concept/person à better designed interventions
What are the weaknesses of having an holistic explanation/approach?
- often vague and unscientific as cannot do scientific testing
What is the free will determinism debate?
The argument about how much choice/free will/control we have over our behaviour vs. how much it is controlled by internal/external factors
Define the free will view in the FWvD debate.
Humans have the ability to make decisions and choose behaviours freely
Define the deterministic view in the FWvD debate.
All behaviour is caused by prior events/internal/external factors, no choice.
What is meant by biological determinism?
Behaviour is innate, controlled by genetics
What is meant by environmental determinism?
All behaviour is a result of previous experiences causing learning via classical and operant conditioning
What is meant by psychic determinism?
All behaviour is caused by innate drives and early childhood experience.
What is meant by hard determinism?
Forces outside of our control (biological or past experiences) shape our behaviour (choice is an illusion)
What is meant by soft determinism?
Behaviour is constrained (choices are limited) by the environment/our biological make up, but only to a certain extent
Give an example of a concept we have studied that is biologically deterministic.
Genetic causes of OCD, Schizophrenia, Violent crime, gender linked to biological sex
Give an example of a concept we have studied that is environmentally deterministic.
Acquisition and maintenance of phobias
Give an example of a concept we have studied that is psychically deterministic.
Formation of personality through psychosexual stages (Freud)
Give an example of a concept we have studied that emphasises free will.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – people are free agents to seek out the stages of the hierarchy.
Give an example of a concept we have studied that is softly deterministic.
Cognitive approach – schemas built through experience but still have choice within these
What are the strengths of having a deterministic explanation?
- allows for scientific testing
What are the weaknesses of having a deterministic explanation?
- problems for legal system/moral responsibility
What are the strengths of believing in a free will standpoint?
Belief in free will is associated with more positive mental health outcomes e.g. internal LOC
What are the problems with believing in a free will standpoint?
- Unfalsifiable
What is the gender bias issue in psychology?
Differential representation of males and females in research findings, can result in reinforcing stereotypes/sexism or failure to recognise genuine gender differences.
What is alpha bias in the context of gender?
When the differences between males and females are exaggerated causing reinforcement of gender stereotypes
What is beta bias in the context of gender?
When the differences between males and females are minimised or ignored (e.g. if generalising from an all male sample to men and women) meaning key gender factors that affect behaviour are missed.
What is androcentrism?
When an idea or area is dominated by males/the male view. Most psychologists were male and so theories were often based on male views/priorities. Can result in females being viewed as inferior/lesser versions of males.
Give an example of alpha (gender) bias in a topic we have studied.
Freud – women inferior to men due to weaker identification if phallic stage à weak superego
Give an example of beta (gender) bias in a topic we have studied.
Fight or Flight – women tend and befriend.
What are the implications of gender biased research in psychology?
- publishing scientifically misleading data
What is the aim of some psychologists when it comes to generating laws/theories, they want them to be ………………..? What does this term mean?
Universal – universality means generating research, theories or explanations which aim to represent human behaviour seen in all individuals/cultures, they aren’t interested in looking for/at differences.
Define the term culture in the context of Psychology.
The beliefs, attitudes, core ideas etc. that a particular group of people share, distinguishing one group from another. Cultures often contain a number of sub-cultures within them.
What is the culture bias issue in psychology?
The risk that if the ‘norm’ or ‘standard’ for a particular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of a particular culture, then any cultural differences in behaviour that deviate from this will be seen as ‘abnormal’, ‘inferior’ or ‘unusual’
Define the term ethnocentric.
Judging other cultures by the standards/values of your own. If this is specifically from a European standpoint it can be called eurocentricism.
Identify the two broadest categories/cultures that societies are often divided into in Psychology.
Individualistic
Define the term cultural relativism.
The idea that norms, values, ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within the specific social and cultural contexts.
Define the term etic in relation to culture bias in psychology.
Etic constructs are universal traits/constructs/ideas/values that can be found across all cultures e.g. family
Define the term emic in relation to culture bias in psychology.
Emic constructs are traits/constructs/ideas/values that are specific to certain cultures e.g. monogamy
Give an example of some culturally biased research we have studied.
Ainsworth’s strange situation – American values on parenting influenced the method and criteria for classification, not appropriate in collectivist or even other individualistic cultures.
What is the role of history when considering issues of culture bias?
We must remember that cultures change over time, and therefore old research may not reflect the present day state of that culture e.g. Asch and conformity – changed since 1950! (Low temporal validity)
How can the way research is designed potentially create a culture difference that isn’t really there? (alpha bias)
If procedures used are culturally biased they can exaggerate differences e.g. Ainsworth
Why is a lot of psychology research culture biased, and to which specific culture?
Most research uses students, and historically most of these students have been American. This means there is low representativeness of the research (poor population validity).
What good advances have been made as a result of increased awareness of culture bias?
+ Indigenous psychologies – developing theories/ideas specific to different cultures e.g. Afrocentrism – African focused
What are the implications of having culture bias in psychological research?
- potentially fuelling/validating racist views/racial stereotypes
What are ethical issues in psychological research?
When there is a potential conflict between the rights of participants and the aims of the research (in a study)
An ethical issue within a piece of psychological research is privacy, explain why.
A researcher might be trying to get more information than a participant feels comfortable to give
An ethical issue within a piece of psychological research is confidentiality, explain why.
Participants may be less willing to give information in the future if a study breaches their confidentiality (it may have put them at risk before)
An ethical issue within a piece of psychological research is valid methodology, explain why.
If a methodology is poor it will result in collecting invalid findings, e.g. that MMR is linked to autism.
An ethical issue within a piece of psychological research is deception, explain how psychologists address this.
They get informed consent at the start of the experiment, explaining as much of the investigation as they can, and then debrief at the end to fill in any gaps.
What do psychologists do to minimise ethical issues within their research?
Follow ethical guidelines to protect the participants, the researchers and the reputation of psychology as a whole.
When is deception allowed in psychological research?
Deception is only allowed if it is essential to the purpose of the study and is considered reasonable by an ethics committee.
What are ethical implications of psychological research?
The impact or consequences the psychological research has on the rights of others/on society in the wider context – the big picture impact
What is socially sensitive research in psychology?
Studies where there are potential social consequences for participants/the groups represented by the research (potentially biases/conflicts/stereotypes etc. could result)
Explain why Sieber and Stanley say psychologists must carefully consider the following when conducting socially sensitive research;
They need to think about the way they phrase the question, is there a way it can be phrased that will minimise the potential for problems on publication.
Explain why Sieber and Stanley say psychologists must carefully consider the following when conducting socially sensitive research;
They need to ensure that the way they conduct the experiment is going to minimise the consequences for the participants involved upon publication of the findings e.g. confidentiality/anonymity
Explain why Sieber and Stanley say psychologists must carefully consider the following when conducting socially sensitive research;
They need to have thought about who is going to be using the information upon publication (and for what) and who is funding the research – could there be a hidden agenda?
Explain why Sieber and Stanley say psychologists must carefully consider the following when conducting socially sensitive research;
They need to consider the different ways the data could be used after publication – how might it be interpreted and applied to the real world - What might the media do with it? What impact might it have on government/legislation?
Give an example of socially sensitive research that we have studied.
Milgram – manipulation by giving orders
What is the argument that you have to have if you plan to conduct socially sensitive research?
Will the benefit of increased understanding outweigh the risks to participants/potential problems resulting from publication. Short term pain for long term gain?
